Gentamicin Resistance Essay

AIM – The aim of the experiment is to determine the relative effectiveness of several anti-microbial substances on developing pathogens. (E. coli)

Drug therapy relies on the principle of selective toxicity, where the effects of the drug are only harmful towards the foreign parasite and not at all to the host. By comparing the effects of different drugs on various parasitic organisms we are able to distinguish the type of disease or infection that is present as well as the mechanism of action that takes place by each drug in question. The drugs may function by interacting with enzymes such as transpeptidase and thymidylate synthetase, for example Penicillin and 5-FU function respectively. The effectiveness can be quantified by measuring the zones of inhibition created by the drug on the plate of the bacteria or fungus. This is the area where there is no growth due to the action of the drug. The discovery that the Micrococcus-luteus is classed as a bacteria was made apparent due to Penicillin’s success in inhibiting it’s growth. The action of the Amphotericin solely on the Pythium, gives reason to believe that it can be grouped with fungal growths.

Abstract-The gram-negative bacteria Serratia marcescens has gained attention in recent years for its tendency to cause nosocomial infections in humans, as well as its development of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance in a bacterium that is harmful to humans can be concerning as it can result in infections that are difficult to treat. In order to find out more about the growing antibiotic resistance of S. marcescens, this experiment used the disc diffusion method to test the susceptibility of S. marcescens to two varieties of antibiotics that were known to have success against some gram-negative bacterium: streptomycin and ampicillin. These antibiotics were, respectively, an aminoglycoside and a beta-lactam. The experiment tested which of the two that S. marcescens had developed more of a resistance to. The zones of inhibition of the discs were significantly larger for discs treated with streptomycin compared to discs treated with ampicillin. This led to the conclusion that S. marcescens is less resistant to streptomycin than to ampicillin.

by Dr. Alexander Fleming. As test continued, Fleming began to realize that he was on the verge of a great discovery. However, he still did not know the identity of the fungus, and had little knowledge of fungi. His crude extracts could be diluted 1,000 times and still be effective in killing bacteria. After years of working on penicillin and going nowhere, many of his co-workers grew tired of hearing about it. The first real test for penicillin came when a 48-year-old police officer nicked himself shaving. After a time, Alexander's face became infected and he developed a temperature. When he was rushed to the hospital, the doctors believed that he had only hours

One environment where bacteria are regularly exposed to antibiotics is in large livestock operations, where producers very often treat their cows and other animals with drugs to prevent epidemics in the unsanitary and overcrowded conditions, which are common in the livestock industry. The simple reason for this is that in the short term it is cheaper to drug up the animals with antibiotics than to keep a clean living environment for them. Another big reason for these producers to drug up the animals is the fact that feeding antibiotics to the livestock makes for larger animals. The problem occurs when bacteria in these animals survive the bombardment of antibiotics, and some always do, the

1 and 3). This antibiotic is effective against both gram positive and negative bacteria, so it would be effective against Staphylococcus epidermidis. This antibiotic is able to kill bacteria by interfering with the cell wall synthesis, weakening it, and causing its death. However, just like with Penicillin, some bacteria have become resistant to this antibiotic (6). The hypothesis stated that Staphylococcus epidermidis would be susceptible to Ampicillin because although some bacteria have become resistant this one has not (7). According to the class data, two of the tests resulted in in susceptibility, one resulted in an intermediate effect, and the rest were resistant (see Figs. 2 and 5). It seems that Staphylococcus epidermidis is in the process of becoming resistant to Ampicillin because of the varied data. However, the group data did not support the hypothesis that the bacteria would still be

While leading this analysis, gene expression was critical to the results of the non-transformed and changed cells. In its procedure of choice, the bacterial cells should have picked if they ought to allow the ampicillin safe quality, therefore indicating commendable components of quality expression. The Escherichia coli's cells were not changed, there seems to have been an error during the experiment. There should have been a slight change in a way that there should have been a colonial growth design in the bacterial cells that had ampicillin safe plasmid. (Hidalgo, Nuria Fernández) On the other hand the cells that were on the ampicillin (lux, control, and NP) demonstrated a colonial design because of the non-transformed cells dying due to

Three of the four quadrants were labeled S, P, T, for streptomycin, penicillin, and tetracycline. One quadrant was left blank for the control (Figure 1.1) Having a control of no antibiotic was used to show the growth of the bacteria when it is uninhibited by antibiotics. Then, Escherichia coli K12 from VWR (catalog #470179-082) and Staphylococcus aureus from VWR (catalog #470179-208) were evenly swabbed across the surface of the agar plate with a cotton swab; ten plates, contained E. coli and the other ten plates contained S. aureus. Then, Streptomycin (10 μg/mL), Penicillin (10 U = ~10 μg/mL), and Tetracycline (30 μg/mL) were obtained and placed into the middle of their respective quadrants. After this, the agar plates were stacked into two stacks of five, for each bacteria, were wrapped with parafilm, and were incubated at 37°C for 48 hours (Figure 1.2). After 48 hours, the plates were moved to a refrigerator at 4°C, until they were taken out of the fridge approximately a week after the stacks of agar plates had initially been placed in the incubator. The diameters of the zones of inhibition were then measured with a ruler and recorded to the nearest millimeter. After measuring the zones of inhibition, a gram-staining technique was used to illustrate the difference in cell wall structure between S. aureus and E. coli. First, a small sample of each species of bacteria was transferred with a loop from the agar plate onto two different areas on a microscope slide that had previously been washed, wiped with alcohol, and dried. Then a drop of water was added to each bacterial sample, was smeared into a thin layer, then allowed to air dry. Once the bacterial samples were dry, the slide was held at one end and was passed through a Bunsen burner flame with the smeared-bacteria samples facing up.

It is undeniable that the recent discovery of antibiotics and disinfectants in the past century is leading to the creation of increasingly dangerous antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Super bugs like Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus have begun breaking out in hospital areas, killing more and more patients due to the lack of people following through with simple safety measures. In order to stop the creation and spread of antibiotic-resistant super bugs, proper precautions must be taken such as avoiding antibacterial cleaners, following through with instructions when taking prescriptions and maintaining adequate hand hygiene. Through adhering to basic safety rules, the creation and spread of super bugs can be minimized and all together

Most common among them are extracellular polymeric, biofilms production by bacteria that may lead to multidrug resistance in pathogens. The Biofilms formation in foot ulcer leads to ineffective penetration of antibiotics due to render of leukocytes into the ulcers by developing antiphagocytic properties inside the biofilm matrix. The matrices formed by bacteria in the biofilms can facilitate altered gene expression, intercellular communication and horizontal gene transfer. Furthermore, peripheral arterial diseases are often present in patients with foot ulcers infection and may lead to poor penetration of antibiotics into the lower limb tissues, thereby promoting selection of resistant bacteria strains. More than 90% strains in Acinetobacter baumannii were resistant to all beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides antibiotics [11]. Alternatively, treatment to heal foot ulcer antibiotic were colistin, polymyxin B, tigecycline [12]. Therefore, the present investigation was done in order to study the prevalence, and antibiotic resistance pattern and biofilm formation of Acinetobacter baumannii strains in Diabetic and non-diabetic foot ulcer

Antibiotics have played a major role in our society thanks to Sir Alexander Fleming's careful observations in 1928. Without it, many lives would be in danger due to infectious diseases. Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by various species of microorganisms and other living systems that are capable in small concentrations of inhibiting the growth of or killing bacteria and other microorganisms. These organisms can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or animals called protozoa. A particular group of these agents is made up of drugs called antibiotics, from the Greek word anti ("against") and bios ("life").

Interestingly, on modified view, the left atrial mass intermittently resembled a ‘cat’ face with prominent eyes, nose and mouth (Fig. 3, Movie 2) measuring 4.9 x 1.9 cm. There were no vegetation’s over tricuspid or pulmonic valve. In view of his severe co-morbid problems cardiac surgeons advised conservative therapy. He was treated with Piperacillin-Tazobactam 4.5 gm twice daily. Gentamycin was not given in view of renal impairment. Over 3 weeks he deteriorated with overlap hepatic encephalopathy and expired.

In the recent years there is a great concern about the problem of antimicrobial resistance either in animal or in human medicine that is associated with failures in the treatment of infectious disease. The high use of antimicrobial agents in animal and in human is probably the main cause of this condition (Auther et al., 2006)

When humoral/cellular defense of body are surpassed by pathogens, microorganisms become virulent potential and infection transpires (Chastre and Fagon,2002). Colonization is a result of host related characteristics, leading to pathogenesis and causing infections(Crnish, et al.,2005). Normal flora proliferation in patients, mainly immune-compromised resulting in endogenous colonization. Endogenous colonization occurs mainly in hospitalized patients and are associated in the use of antibiotics, immunosuppressant 's, surgical procedures, baseline diseases and use of invasive devices (Safdar , et al.,2005).

According the World Health Organization (WHO), antibiotic resistance is one of the world’s greatest health threats to date (Haddox, 2013). In the article, The Health Threat of Antibiotic Resistance, Gail Haddox (2013) discusses the danger antibiotic resistance poses in today’s society and strategies to prevent the expansion of antibiotic resistance. In Europe alone, an estimated 25,000 deaths have been attributed to multi-resistant infections (Haddox, 2013). Common infections are now harder to treat due to the increased resistance to antibiotics across the world, in fact some are becoming untreatable. Antibiotics should be treated like oil, a non-renewable resource (Haddox, 2013).