Hippocampal Slices

Q1: The cerebral cortex is a highly organized, six layered structure (L1-6) with a variety of excitatory and inhibitory cell types. Excitatory (glutamatergic) neurons make up 80% of the cortex and consist of pyramidal and spiny stellate (granule) neurons. Inhibitory (GABAergic) neurons make up only 20% of the cortex and consist of four different subtypes: non-fast spiking serotonin expressing GABAergic neurons, martinotti cells, basket cells, and chandelier cells (Petersen & Crochet, 2013; Shipp, 2007). The total number of neuronal cells in the adult human cortex is 21.4 billion for females and 26.3 billion for males; however, there are also non-neuronal cells present in the cortex (Pelvig, Pakkenberg, Stark, & Pakkenberg, 2008). The major non-neuronal cells are glial cells and consist of: oligodendrocytes (75% of non-neuronal cells), astrocytes (20%) and microglia (5%) (Pelvig et al., 2008). The layering of the cortex is highly organized, with specific cell bodies located in each layer. Layer 1 receives input from other cortical layers as well as subcortical layers and is comprised solely of inhibitory neurons, although there are axons and dendrites that project onto these neurons in addition to non-neuronal cells (Petersen & Crochet, 2013). Layers 2/3 are difficult to differentiate from one another, and often referred to as the supragranular layers. These layers contain medium sized pyramidal cells that have densely packed and highly aligned apical dendrites and make

DISCUSSION: Rat #4 demonstrated similar responses during light on and light off periods. However, it learned to press more during light on periods, as it pressed 109 times when the light was on, and only 92 times when the light was

Mitochondria, dubbed the ‘powerhouse of the cell’, are a type of organelle present in most human cells. Their primary function is to generate Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s principal source of chemical energy. Unlike most other organelles, mitochondria store their own set of genetic material, distinct from the DNA situated in a cell’s nucleus. Although this ‘mitochondrial genome’ represents only 0.1% of a cell’s genetic information, it often plays a significant role in development.

() who stated that stimulation of dMT axonal fibers with brief light pulses did not evoke fast synaptic inputs in CeL neurons. Only small, slow inward currents were reported following high frequency light stimulation. The diverging results may be the consequence of differing viral transduction efficiency or stimulation conditions. Interestingly, the apparent connectivity of dMT and BA was substantially greater as compared to dMT and CeL. Furthermore, synaptic responses evoked in BA PNs were larger as compared to those in CeL neurons regarding absolute amplitudes of AMPAR- and NMDAR-mediated currents under similar stimulation conditions. The effect may be due to stronger innervation of the BA by dMT efferents, to increased presynaptic transmitter release or to increased postsynaptic receptor expression. The AMPAR/NMDAR ratio, which may give an indication of input-independent basal synaptic strength based on postsynaptic AMPAR occupancy, did not reveal any differences dMT-BA and dMT-CeL synapses. Interestingly, AMPAR silent synapses were discovered in the CeL. These synapses may be recruited during periods of increased synaptic input and facilitate

Accumulating evidence has shown that age-related episodic memory differences are closely associated with the development of hippocampal subregions. In particular, area CA1 is believed to play a significant role in the encoding of related experience. Prior work has pointed out that memory integration occurs during the encoding of two related events. Previous studies have also suggested that the developmental changes in CA1 volume are related to the improvement in associative inference from childhood to adulthood. However, it remains an open question whether contextual information of two related episodes will influence memory integration and the ability to make associative inference. Also, little is known about whether this impact changes

A Review of " Intrinsic Hippocampal Activity as a Biomarker for Cognition and Symptoms in Schizophrenia"

Since the dawn of the age of technology, humanity has made massive progress in the study of the human brain. Specifically, humanity’s new technology has led to revelations about the way the brain functions, and continues to discover the neurophysical reasoning behind human actions. These new discoveries continue to disprove previous theories, and have now begun to affect the way society views and perceive criminal law and the way it operates. In his book Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain, David Eagleman argues that there is a deep problem regarding how we think about whether it makes sense to blame people for their actions. Eagle argues that, in light of recent technological medical advancements, the existence of free will is beginning to seem highly improbable, and that both simple and complex actions can be traced back to their neuroscientific basis, without first bypassing the conscious mind. In this paper, I will argue that the theory and reconsideration proposed by Eagleman is, in fact, accurate, and a highly probable proposition for the future of the legal system.

The brain and the distinct parts have countless duties but one of the utmost vital ones is assembly and retain new memory. In the Brain… it says, “Structures within the temporal lobe, a region of the brain near your ears, are responsible for different types of learning.” Page 5. The temporal lobe aids learning and saves the information that can be used later. Learning is key to help humans and animals to survive and thrive. Learning allows living beings to be able to do old tasks and new tasks. “… The hippocampus gathers all of the sensory aspects of the event and conducts soon initial processing of these sensory elements into a neurological format that elements that are not completely understood.” Said in the Brian, page 6. The hippocampus keeps a

Amnesia can occur depending on the type and on the cause of amnesia. When the brain is injured, it can interfere with memories because it damages the brain structure that forms the limbic which is what controls the emotions and memories.This can affect many lives because the person could forget a distant relative to a family member as well as it might cause mood swings from being depressed into angry. There is amnesia called neurological amnesia. Neurological amnesia is when the brain gets damaged somehow and what will happen is memory's might get erased or lost. Neurological amnesia can be caused through stroke, seizures, lack of oxygen through the brain like heart attack and long term alcohol drinking. Another type of amnesia is dissociative

When you get older one part of your brain grows with you and deteriorates as you get older. This part of your brain is called “hippocampus”. That is the reason that when you go shopping with your nanny she forgets half of the list and she also forgot to write it down. The elderly also don’t have cognitive memory because you can ask them their original cheesecake recipe and they have it written down because they can’t remember. I would advise that the elderly play regularly memory games so they can’t forget. The elderly can play luminosity which is a website that challenges your brain. It also includes memory games which are a big help for the elderly. According to an ABC news article younger people tend to remember specific details in their

The OED defines multitasking as dealing with more than one task at the same time. The brain, in order to multitask, must receive both actions being performed, and dilute the information before processing. In order to read and listen to something at the same time, for an example, the brain must take the information being read by the eyes and the pulses coming from the ears, and reduce the frequency to keep both tasks going efficiently.

Psychiatrists hypothesis that hippocampal dysfunctioning showed the anatomic basis for alteration in memory like fragmentation and delayed recall of traumatic memories of childhood abuse. 3 Based on a research made by David de Wied, the anterior pituitary gland is the primary site of action for glucocorticoid dexamethasone: a potent synthetic glucocorticoid, a blocking substance or suppressor of stress-induced ACTH. And the medial basal hypothalamus is the site for both synthetic and natural occurring glucocorticoid (corticosterone and aldosterone; stress inducers). Corticosterone acts more than hypothalamus in the brain, and there are different modes of actions of dexamethasone and Corticosterone in the brain. The accumulation of dexamethasone in the pituitary cotrophs determine the hyperactive and the dysfunctioning of the hypothalamus- pituitary-adrenal axis commonly found in depressive patients.

The hippocampus was rapidly collected and homogenized in Cell lysis buffer (beyotime, P0013, China) containing protease and phosphatase inhibitors. The homogenate was centrifuge at 10,000rpm/min for 5min at 4 ̊C. The protein concentration of the supernatant was determined by SDS-PAGE with standard protein. Then the sample was run by 10% SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membrane. The membranes were incubated with blocked solution (5% nonfat milk in PBS) at room temperature for 1 h and probed with primary antibody against CaMkII (Cell signaling, #12716) and PSD95 (Abcam, ab192757) at 4 ̊C overnight, then the membranes were incubated with horse radish peroxidase conjugated secondary antibodies for 1 h at room

There are many advantages and disadvantages of using optogenetics. Some of the benefits of using optogenetics include being able to apply the technique to numerous levels of brain function such as neurons, synapses, local circuits and even behaviour to obtain a visual record and manipulate activity. By targeting the probe or light source to specific cellular compartments or areas of interests, specificity is achieved and researchers are able to establish links when optogenetics is implemented at different levels of the nervous system. Moreover, both the spatial resolution and temporal resolution is very precise with a millisecond scale as opsins are able to rapidly cause changes in targeted neurons by either activating or inhibiting them. Lastly,

Mitochondrial are dynamic organelles that are involved in a number of functions essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. To maintain the energetic state of the cell mitochondria maintains a subtle balance between fission and fusion to regulate mitochondrial number, mitochondrial shape, and network as unbalanced fission and fusion can have deleterious impact on cellular metabolism, energy status and redox homeostasis. Further, mitochondrial and neuronal activities are closely integrated to one another as injuries in mitochondria compromises neuronal function and survival. Mitochondrial dynamics impacts mitochondrial genome integrity, bioenergetics and neuronal functions including synaptic maintenance