Willowbrook Hepatitis Essay

The Willowbrook State School for children with mental retardation became notorious for and a prime example of a conflict between research and ethics when the details of a research project and the treatment of the residents. Willowbrook initially opened as a new hospital serving WWII veterans however this changed when in 1951, “the hospital was established as the Willowbrook State School for people suffering from mental disabilities” (Starogannis & Hill, 2008, p. 87). Willowbrook continued to serve as a fronted rehabilitation facility for the mentally

State institutions that house individuals with intellectual and physical disabilities have been a prominent part of history in the health professions. In 1967 in the United States, there were more than a quarter of a million state institutions that housed individuals with intellectual and physical disabilities (Waldman, 2017). One state institution that was around during that time period was Willowbrook State School which was located on Staten Island in New York City and was one of the largest run state schools for people with developmental disabilities. Willowbrook at its peak was home to over 6000 residents when its capacity was for just 4000 (Kaser, 2005). Willowbrook was a state institution that is most often described for dehumanizing its patients. Willowbrook housed both children and

What information about the vaccination series for Hepatitis received by healthcare workers will the nurse use in response to Chad's statement?

I think it is important to have general guidelines to follow in order to prevent experiments like the Tuskegee Study and the Willowbrook study. The Willowbrook study involved a group of children diagnosed with mental retardation, living at the Willowbrook State Hospital in Staten Island, NY. The experimenters wanted to study the history of the hepatitis virus when left untreated, so the children were intentionally infected with the disease. The scientists tried to justify the experiment saying the children would have eventually been infected while at Willowbrook anyway, so it would be better for them to be infected under controlled, scientific research conditions. They also tried to convince the parents that if they enrolled in the study, their children would be given admission into the hospital (which was intentionally short of space). (Marsden & Melander)

Willowbrook was designed in 1958 as an idea to build a school for the developmentally disabled. The New York legislature approved more than 5 million dollars to purchase 375 acres of land in the Northern part of Staten Island. Thirty building were erected completely surrounded by woods. When it was finished in 1941 the World War II was ending and veterans were just returning home. Veterans Administration took over the building to care for their wounded. The temporary name was Halloran General Hospital. It wasn’t until 1951 that Willowbrook opened its doors as “Willowbrook State School for people with disabilities.” Within the first 4 years Willowbrook surpassed its capacity of 2,950 by housing about 3,600 residents. Parents during that time were pressured by society, doctors, and even the court system to place their children who did not meet society’s standards of “normal.” By 1965 Willowbrook housed over 6,000 residents. This institution had the highest population in all of New Your State of disabled people along with the highest population of African Americans and Puerto Ricans. More than 200,000 people with disabilities nation wide were dumped into different institutions. The first legislative social reform gave families no other choices. The Federal Government did not provide any assistance to help keep their children stay home. Willowbrook became a dumping ground for the developmentally disabled where they were subjected to deplorable conditions, abuse and even

The Willowbrook hepatitis experiments were conducted from the years 1966 to 1963 by Dr. Saul Krugman and during those 3 years approximately seven hundred children were infected with either hepatitis A or hepatitis B. These mentally handicapped students at Willowbrook State School were wrongfully treated and infected in an effort to protect the children from further harmful infections. The children of Willowbrook were harmed, parents were not given proper information before they provided consent, and the participants were very much deceived. The Society for Research in Child Development has many principles for the standards in research, many of which have been violated by Dr. Saul Krugman and his team during the Willowbrook hepatitis experiments.

About 4.1 million people in Americans have the positive antibody to hepatitis C virus (HCV), and about 75 percent have permeant infection. Additionally, most of the infections happened 20 to 40 years ago, before the finding of HCV. Hepatitis C increased from 7,000 to 13,000 deaths in 2005. Furthermore, HCV develops slowly which increases the risk of severe complications in the infected people. Identification, death, and treatment are predicted to affect 35,000 by 2030. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) used antiviral therapy with PEGylated in clinical trials (Kalichman, Washington, Kegler, Grebler, Kalichman, Cherry, & Eaton, 2015). The CDC recommends a HCV one time test for people born between 1945 and 1965. The objective of this study was to thoroughly evaluate the amount of substance abusers infected with hepatitis C in the United States. Additionally, to observe the treatment of HCV. Currently Medicaid and Medicare repayment standards for sofosbuvir were calculated in all states, including the District of Columbia. Medicaid and Medicare covered the drug based on the following conditions; liver disease stage, HIV, and drug use. Approximately 42 states reimbursed the following criteria up to 74 percent for the drug sofobuvir. About two-thirds of the United States restricted the treatment centered on prescriber type. About 88 percent included drug abuse in their sofosbuvir admissibility measures. Finally, 50 percent required a date of abstinence and 64 percent required

It’s all something that they’ve heard about, but do they really know as much about the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) as they think? HBV is a virus that attacks the liver, which can cause lifelong infections and other serious diseases (CDC, 2014). HBV is spread in multiple ways and is more life threatening than people realize. Explaining HBV requires much understanding about the virus, so to start out, pathophysiology will be the first topic, then into clinical manifestations, medical management, nursing interventions, and to finish off with a conclusion of the disease. Surprisingly enough, there isn’t enough awareness about this virus as would be expected. It’s a very serious and potentially deadly disease that goes unspoken of.

Hepatitis B is a virus that has been on the rise recently that everyone needs to know about. Hepatitis B has many types of transmissions, that make it harmful for babies and young children, along with adults; everyone is at risk. Hepatitis (literally inflammation of the liver) comes in many forms A, B, C, and more, but today we will be focusing on Hepatitis B. Inflammation of the liver can cause liver damage or failure, leading to death, which is what makes Hepatitis B such a dangerous virus. The Hepatitis B virus (HBV) enters the liver and attacks liver cells, leading to the liver becoming hardened over time due to it being constantly under attack by HBV, while a normal liver

The experiment conducted on the children was justified in several different ways and appeared to be for the greater good. However, it would never be conducted in our society today because it violated many of the principles in the Belmont Report. Benefiance is one of the first principles that was violated. The well-being of the mentally challenged children was not secure as the researchers were purposely injecting them with the actual hepatitis disease. Due to this, the children were sick and had to endure all the short and long term effects of the disease. As mentioned previously, the disease causes cirrhosis which is something the children would have to live with forever. Justice is the next principle that was violated. These were not fair procedures in the experiment because the children are mentally challenged and unable to make coherent decisions. They were also chosen by the researchers for this study because the disease was already

In New York City the Willowbrook State School (1947-1987) was supported for mentally disabled children by the state. The school had too many children with 2,000 or more students more than the school was even suppose to have. Families would give up the children to this lifestyle of poor and unsanitary conditions. Hepatitis A specifically and other hepatitis diseases were very common within this inhumane school. This disease inside the institution of disabled kids brought up outrageous amounts of controversy because of experiments on the children to try and diagnose their infection. Children with parents consent were the only allowed to be inside the specific study. Although many parents would giver the permission for the kids to be infected with the disease just so that they could be enlisted in the institution that didn’t need any

Hepatitis A is a highly contagious infection. The infection affects mostly the liver and internal organs. Hepatitis A is caused by a virus. You can get this virus by eating or drinking food contaminated by fecal matter. Symptoms do not normally appear until after you have contracted the virus for a few weeks. People most at risk for contracting this virus are children, laboratory workers, and people who have liver problems.

One of the first signs of HPV came in Italy in 1842 when a doctor noticed that married women and prostitutes developed cervical cancer, but nuns did not. While the doctor did not successfully determine the cause, this research was one of the first signs that cancers could be sexually transmitted. In 1907 Giuseppe Ciuffo determined that skin warts and genital warts were related and the likely cause of both types of warts was a virus. This hypothesis was confirmed in 1949 when technology became available to observe the virus itself. The overall study of papillomaviruses took a large step forward in 1930 when Peyton Rous discovered that the viruses could cause skin cancer in rabbits. In 1976 Dr. Harald zur Hausen proposed that the HPV caused cervical

Hepatitis E is an emerging viral infection able to cause chronic infection, and can lead to liver cirrhosis in immunosuppressed individuals. Currently ribavirin is the only treatment available, but some patients cannot tolerate this drug whilst others have infection with a ribavirin resistant virus due to a viral genetic mutation. Understanding an individual patients immune (T cell) response to HEV infection and how this changes during treatment is key to tailoring ribavirin treatment for an individual patient (optimum dose and length of treatment), and developing new therapeutic strategies such as T cell therapies to deal with HEV

Hepatitis A is a liver disease caused by the Hepatitis A virus. It may cause fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea, and abdominal discomfort, followed within a few days by jaundice the disease ranges in clinical severity from a mild illness lasting 1–2 weeks to a severely disabling disease lasting several months. Good personal hygiene and proper sanitation can help prevent Hepatitis A. Transmission may occur by direct person-to-person contact; or from contaminated water, ice, or shellfish from contaminated water; or from fruits, vegetables, or other foods that are eaten uncooked, but which may become contaminated during handling. Hepatitis A can affect anyone