How Mucosal Surfaces Are The Main Routes Of Pathogens

Method of pathogen introduction to a non-pathogenic environment includes brood stock, Aquaculture feeds and equipment. But the main method of disease introduction is due to movement of contaminated animals. Assessing of the antimicrobial use is a difficult task due to more than 200 aquatic species are

One of the most commonly shared beliefs about aquaculture is that it has potential to amplify and transfer disease/parasites to wild fish populations, but strict management practices and guidelines have been utilized and supplemented to ensure that US farming operations mitigate current and potential environmental risks associated with aquaculture (NOAA, 2015). Among these practices are regular diver-led inspections to investigate the integrity of nets and net infrastructure, surveillance cameras and even public webcam feeds that monitor the fish farms and in particular monitor efficient use of feed, regular health inspections in efforts to have a head start on disease prevention and detection, and “comprehensive sanitary and biosecurity programs to prevent the introduction and/or spread of pests or diseases from one farm site/cage to another or into the environment.” (NOAA, 2015). Additionally, movements are being made to stop the spreading of disease and to limit oceanic pollution by containing salmon in solid tanks rather than in netting. “In Washington State, Domsea Farms has launched a land-based, freshwater system to produce coho salmon.” (David Suzuki Foundation, n.d.) This method is not only environmentally sound, but it opens up aquacultural boundaries. By containing fish in these large tanks, there is potential for salmon aquaculture to

Answer: Innate immune system or nonspecific resistance is also known as first line of defense. It’s nonspecific that means not design to target any specific microorganisms. Response time for innate immune system is very quick compare to adaptive immune system. These infections inhibited by the substance that change the humoral or cellular component of the host that mediated non specific resistance. They are not specific means they provide protection against a spectrum of organism. And they are vitamin, minerals, fatty acid and microbial product. These substances are major part of our diet. We consume food and get from it. Diet has both

Prokaryotes are ubiquitous, successfully adapting to diverse environments as well as developing symbiotic relationships with host organisms (Lengeler, Drews, & Schlegel, 1999). Prokaryotes may have both autotrophic and heterotrophic characteristics. A cyanobacteria is photosynthetic, commonly called blue-green algae, and may produce toxins (Crayton, 1993). Bacteria are most commonly associated in the general

Explain two ways you help in preventing the spread of pathogens on a daily basis. (4 Points)

The abundance of V. vulnificus in coastal water was strongly correlated to water temperature. The isolation of cultivable forms is limited to the warmest months. Maugeri TL et al reported that V. vulnificus was isolatd only when the water temperature was between 20 to 21.5°C (Maugeri et al. 2006). In the present study, the bacterium was isolated during the summer season (average water temperature of 25°C). It seems that this finding can show association of the cultivable forms on high water temperature. In the current research, V. vulnificus was not found in any samples obtained in the spring (average water temperature of 15°C). In the Gulf of Mexico V. vulnificus was not isolated when seawater temperatures were <14°C (Pfeffer et al. 2003).When the water temperatures reach to less than 13°C, V. vulnificus strains enter the VBNC state in which they are metabolically active but unable to reproduce on common culture media (Nowakowska and Oliver 2013, Wu et al. 2016). In conclusion, with regard to the presence of V. vulnificus in the area under study, the bacterium may cause disease in swimming who have open

In our world we are surrounded by microorganisms, some are harmless, many are beneficial; they are a part of our normal flora on our skin and in our intestines, providing a barrier against microorganisms that may not be so harmless. It is important, however, to distinguish which microorganisms are potentially pathogenic from those that are not, and when someone does get ill to determine what the organism is so appropriate treatment can be determined.

During the year, microbes appeared sometime in March while humans have been here for 30 mins or fewer (11*). Ed Yong uses this fact as a springboard to explore and explain the complex relationships that exist between microbes and animals. After confirming that microbes have been here way longer than anyone of us, he gets into the thick of it by discussing the sheer ubiquity of microbes, which exist in every conceivable place. From everything you touch to the piping hot underwater vents where nothing else lives. It is as if everything has an extra invisible microbial layer.

When we speak of the word “bacteria” some individuals may not recognize how large of a role these tiny organisms play in our everyday lives. Some may jump to the conclusion that bacteria are related to the spread of germs or sickness among the human population. Most microbes are harmless or beneficial (Matthews, 2015) and a large majority of these tiny microbes are extremely important in order to maintain the balance of living organisms and chemicals in our environment (Tortora, Funke, & Case, 2013).

coli K1 is a key step in the infection process (polin). The intestine of healthy neonates gets colonized by commensal bacteria shortly after birth, but for some individuals this normally harmless process can lead to sepsis, due mainly to the immature immune system of the human neonate (3). The gastrointestinal tract mucosa possesses several defense mechanisms which protect the gut from microbial infection (30). The gastrointestinal barrier is composed of a monolayer of several cell types, including the structural enterocytes, Paneth cells, and goblet cells, which are involved in the secretion of mucus (14, 30,

The simulated gastric solution consisted of distilled water containing 0.2% NaCl with its pH adjusted to 1.5 by 5 M HCl; the solution was filter-sterilized using a 0.2 mm filter (Cook et al. 2011; Mokarram et al. 2009; Rao et al. 1989). The assay was initiated by transferring the produced beads (uncoated, coated) to 9 mL of simulated gastric solution; the initial cell concentration was approximately 8.8× 1013 CFU/mL and 2 -6 × 1012 (uncoated, coated beads). The suspension was incubated at 37° C; samples were collected at 0, 60, and 120 min and following the incubation, the beads were removed. Viable cells of each bacterium were then enumerated in triplicates using method described in Section 2.5 and the counts were expressed as mean log CFU/mL.

Many residents of the microbiota have the ability to become opportunistic pathogens if there is a breach into internal host territory. For this reason, there are two methods utilized by the host that can be described as a confinement of microbes to intestinal regions and the stratifying of this region to prevent direct contact to host cells as a means of protection. The presence of a layer of intestinal epithelial cells coupled with the secretion of glycoproteins from goblet cells to produce a mucus layer and antimicrobial proteins to disrupt cell membrane are components of the primary barrier in defense. Additionally, stratification creates distinct layers within the intestinal region through the production of IgA antibodies by B cells which can be placed on the apical side of epithelial cells to further prevent entry by binding to bacteria in the lumen (Hooper 2012). An additional mechanism of IgA consists of the decreasing of flagellin gene expression in bacteria in order to reduce host inflammatory responses to cells comprised of flagellin. The secretion of IgA is involved in various functions that regulate the healthy growth of resident commensals to maintain both the diversity and interaction of the gut microbiota with the host

The airways present a large surface area constantly exposed to pathogens and toxic compounds/particulates which may cause harm to the organism were it to pass into the blood stream. To combat this, the airways have evolved a plethora of defence mechanisms shield against these attacking agents, namely the innate immune response. The respiratory epithelium is the most abundant cell type in the innate immune response. It provides a physical barrier to invasion, aided by the presence of the mucocilary blanket lining the epithelial cells. Pathogens trapped in this mucosal layer can be cleared mechanically by ciliary action, coughing and sneezing. This is further reinforced with a cellular response in the form of mononuclear phagocytes; such as monocytes,

Although mucin is an essential component of mucus, little is known about the evolution of mucin genes or other genes associated with the maintenance of mucosal linings, their expression patterns or what specific role mucins and associated genes play in mucosal barrier function and immunity in cnidarians (Schama et al., 2012). As a defence against infectious and external stimuli, the mucosal barrier has evolved to respond to physiological and immunological stimuli originating from diverse organisms and the environment, including ultra-violet radiation, bacteria and desiccation (Linden et al., 2008).

One of the cardinal features of mucosal immunity in mammals is the synthesis and transepithelial transport of large amounts of SIgA that contribute to maintaining homeostasis with the enteric microbiota (Macpherson et al., 2008; Mestecky, 1987). Endogenous SIgA production normally begins shortly after weaning, coincident with a shift from breast milk to solid food as the main nutrition source and accelerated colonization of the intestine by commensal bacteria. The initial endogenous SIgA response is dominated by IgA antibodies with few if any mutations in their variable regions and low avidity for the bacteria in the lumen (Lindner et al., 2012). As the mucosal immune system matures, most of the SIgA antibodies secreted in the intestine carry mutations concentrated in the complementarity-determining regions of VH and VL domains. These mutations occur as a result of T-cell dependent somatic mutation in GCs and lead to increased avidity of the antibodies for target antigens. B cell clones responding to foreign antigens that persist can undergo additional rounds of somatic mutation in GALT GCs contributing to further increases in antibody affinity (Bergqvist et al., 2013).