Human Drug For Treating Bacterial Infections

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or more commonly, MRSA, is an emerging infectious disease affecting many people worldwide. MRSA, in particular, is a very interesting disease because although many people can be carriers of it, it generally only affects those with a depressed immune system; this is why it is so prevalent in places like nursing homes and hospitals. It can be spread though surgeries, artificial joints, tubing, and skin-to-skin contact. Although there is not one specific treatment of this disease, there are ways to test what antibiotics work best and sometimes antibiotics aren’t even necessary.

Cephalexin, is a beta-lactam antibiotic. The antibiotic binds to specific penicillin-binding proteins positioned inside the bacterial cell wall, this inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis. The consequences are fatal to the susceptible bacteria but comparatively harmless for the human cells because the latter does not possess such a structure. Cell

When penicillin was released to the public in 1944, it was a miracle drug. Infections that had been killers were suddenly treatable. Doctors recommended it generously, both for illnesses that needed it and illnesses that didn’t. Before long, however, it took much stronger doses to see penicillin’s effects. When the antibiotic arms race began in 1944, most physicians assumed that new antibiotics would be discovered or created to keep up with the evolving resistance in bacteria, but the bacteria are constantly evolving new defenses and doctors are starting to run low on antibiotic ammunition. MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, is one of many types of bacteria

β-lactam antibiotics (beta-lactam antibiotics) are a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics, consisting of all antibiotic agents that contain a beta-lactam ring in their molecular structures. They kill bacteria by generally inhibiting their cell wall synthesis. They are mainly active against gram positive bacterias but many gram negative bacteria are also susceptible to amoxicillin. Staphylococcus aureus being a gram positive bacteria are highly susceptible to amoxillin.

Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of human bacterial infections worldwide1, and following the discovery and widespread utilization of antibiotics, S. aureus has evolved to become resistant to a number of antimicrobial treatments. Most notably, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains have acquired the mecA gene, encoding the penicillin binding protein (PBP2a), which confers resistance to oxacillin and all β-lactam antibiotics 2. These characteristics, combined with other virulence factors, have made MRSA infections difficult to treat, and lead to MRSA being recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality 3. MRSA is also the leading cause of nosocomial infections4–6, contributing significantly to increased healthcare costs 7. CDC estimated in 2008 that MRSA was responsible for 89,785 cases of disease, causing 15,249 deaths in the US8.

When Penicillin was first introduced in the early 1940’s to treat bacterial infection, resistance strains of Staphylococcus Aureus were completely unidentified. However, only a decade later, the disease was already becoming very common in hospital environments. Because of this, Methicillin was introduced in 1961 to medicate these resistance strains, yet within a single year, doctors were already encountering Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a pathogen that causes many complicated health infections in our body. It’s a type of s. aureus bacteria that can produced by process of resistance to many antibiotics such as dicloxacillin, oxacillin, and methicillin. Why is MRSA so dangerous? Its natural ability is to continue transforming in ways to prevent from antibiotic from being completely successful in the batter against MRSA. The US had spent billions of dollar every year into research in order to prevent it from further spreading. In order to do so, we must step up to advance our technology and knowledge to be able to defeat the bacterial warfare. This research will discuss the prevalence and different factors of the disease, it

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (as cited in Upshaw-Owens & Bailey, 2012) MRSA-related infections have risen from 2% of S.aureus infections in 1974 to 64% in 2004. In the United States 46% of S.aureus cases are Methicillin resistant. The rise in infection rates is alarming and

In 1961, soon after the introduction of methicillin, the first β-lactamase-resistant penicillin, strains of Staphylococcus aureus that were resistant to methicillin were identified in the United Kingdom. From the 1960s into the early 1970s, MRSA infections in Europe were limited largely to hospital outbreaks caused predominantly by S. aureus phage type 83A (subsequently identified to be sequence type 250; this so-called “archaic clone” gradually became infrequent and was replaced in the 1970s and 1980s by five prevalent clonal lineages, although many MRSA backgrounds existed between the 1960s and 2000. The terms Community-Acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) and hospital acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) have been used to call attention both to the genotypic differences of certain MRSA isolates as well as to the epidemiological and clinical features of the

aureus that is resistant to many antibiotics. MRSA is unable to be killed by all beta-lactam

According, to doctors and scientists all over the world it is concluded with evidence that the strain Staphylococcus aureus is methicillin resistant because of the way individuals abuse the antibiotics and take high dosages when not needed nor prescribed by an attending physician or professional. Because of the high death mortality rate and the danger that this bacterium poses, it is very important to understand the different aspects of this strain, including the causative agent, how the pathogen affects the body, and also how the body fights this strain in order to properly protect individuals from this strain (MRSA,2015).

Two main mechanisms are responsible for resistance to aminopenicillins: enzymatic hydrolysis of the antibiotic and a change in penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). The more frequent is the production of β-lactamase, usually of the TEM-1 type but sometimes of the ROB-1 type [2]. The incidence of strains producing β-lactamase is particularly high in many countries [3;

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common skin infection contracted in the community and healthcare systems. Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was originally resistant to the antibiotic methicillin which is a form of penicillin. MRSA is now resistant to many other antibiotics such as; penicillin, vancomycin, and erythromycin (Sakoulas. G., Moellering. R.C.Jr., 2008). What this means is that the antibiotics have lost their ability to control or kill the bacteria. MRSA was first seen in healthcare in the 1940’s (Herwaldt. L. A., 1999). Since it is commonly contracted and can live in many environments, we now see MRSA in the community. MRSA can only be contracted by physical touch with an infected individual. If

The major methicillin resistance proteins that our work identified and shared by almost the strains are the mecA, mecR1 and mecI. These genes have been well discussed as ARGs in most S. aureus strains [35] that include MRSA [36, 37]. The mecR1 ARG plays a role in the methicillin resistance by involving the penicillin-interactive as potential antirepressor. The mecI act as a transcriptional repressor that constitutively blocks the transcription of the gene for the penicillin-binding protein. The different mechanisms of how these genes are involved in the resistance to antibiotics have been well discussed by Lowy, [38]. The mecI and mecR1 ARGs regulate the mecA response to β-lactam antibiotics in a fashion similar to that of the regulation of blaZ by the genes blaR1 and blaI upon exposure to penicillin [36, 38]. These ARGs have been studied to lead b-lactam resistance [9, 37, 39]. Another gene that encodes a β-lactamase is the PC1 beta-lactamase (blaZ), which is one among the many MDR efflux pumps involved in biocide resistance [40]. S. aureus have been studied to have

Staphylococcus Aureus is a gram negative bacterium that may be pathogenic or exist as a commensal organism in humans. Unevolved strains are susceptible to nearly all antibiotics (Chambers & DeLeo, 2009). Among the many antibiotic options, penicillin is particularly effective against S. Aureus. This is due to the mechanism of action by which penicillin replaces key structures in the bacterial cell wall that are essential to growth and repair. By preventing this cell maintenance, penicillin promotes osmotic instability in the cell and greatly increases the likelihood of cell death (Strominger & Tipper 1965). In a