Hydrogen Sulfide: New Gaseous Signaling Molecule in the Cardiovascular System

H2O2 is commonly known as hydrogen peroxide and it is a strong oxidizer and a naturally produced compound in humans as a by-product of oxidative metabolism. Because of this, humans also produce the enzyme catalase peroxidases in order to convert small amounts of H2O2 into oxygen and water. It uses the following chemical formula:

The purpose of this experiment was to determine how the body prevents the build up of H2O2 in tissues. During the process of cellular respiration Carbon Dioxide and water are produced but occasionally Hydrogen Peroxide is formed as an

Because the PCO2 levels are too high the body is not getting the adequate amount of oxygen. This means the oxygen-carrying hemoglobin is not working properly do to the excessive amounts carbon dioxide causing respiratory acidosis.

Respiratory acidosis is a condition that occurs when the lungs cannot remove all the carbon dioxide the body produces. This causes body fluids, especially the blood, to become too acidic. Chronic respiratory acidosis occurs over a long period of time, this leads to a stable situation, because the kidneys increase body chemicals, such as bicarbonate, that help restore the body’s acid-base balance. Acute respiratory acidosis is a condition in which carbon dioxide builds up quickly, before the kidneys can return the body to a state of balance. Some of the symptoms may include: confusion, fatigue, lethargy, shortness of breath, and sleepiness. Some causes of

Oxygen is the part of the gases that is inhaled by mammals, even though it is not the most abundant in the atmosphere. This oxygen is the function of the blood and the heart, and it is dissolved in the plasma PaO2 and chemically bound to hemoglobin SaO2. In fact, for every 100 d/L of blood, 0.003ml of oxygen is dissolved in the plasma, and 1.34 m l of oxygen is carried in every 100 d/l of blood (Oxygen equilibrium and

With all living organisms, a process known as cell respiration is integral in order to provide the body with an essential form of energy, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Oxygen, although an essential part of this process, can form reactants from colliding with electrons associated with carrier molecules. (pb101.rcsb.org, 2017). Hydrogen peroxide is an integral product of this reaction but is known to impose negative effects on the body if high levels are introduced. Explicitly, this reaction is caused “If oxygen runs into (one of these) carrier molecules, the electron may be accidentally transferred to it. This converts oxygen into dangerous compounds such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide, which can attack the delicate sulphur atoms and metal ions in proteins.” (pdbh101.rcb.org, 2017). Research has suggested that the hydrogen peroxide can be converted into hydroxyl radicals, known to mutate DNA, which can potentially cause bodily harm due to DNA’s role in the synthesis of proteins. These radicals can cause detrimental effects on the human body, and studies have suggested a link to ageing. Due to the harmful effects of these H2o2, it is important that the body finds a way to dispose of hydrogen peroxide before concentrations are too great.

As well as this, Nox2 affects the level of HIF-2a, which is responsible for anti-oxidative activity, and decreases it that lead to increased oxidative responses and neuronal

Many animal studies have shown that lead is capable of causing oxidative stress in many organs (Patra et al., 2001). Toxicity of lead is mainly attributed to the induction of oxidative stress by disruption of the pro-oxidant/anti-oxidant balance, elevation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS, respectively) such as superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and lipid peroxides, and nitric oxide (Kumar and Reddy, 2012). Currently, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), derives from L-Cysteine and the precursor of glutathione (GSH), is a well-established cyto-protective drug against drugs induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity (Whyte et al., 2007; Akbulut et al., 2014), where it exerts antioxidant properties. L-Cysteine was utilized as a chelator of heavy metal to conserve against oxidative stress and inhibit damage to cells and tissues. L-cysteine, a sulfur-containing amino acid, is a nutritionally occurring non-essential amino

Activation of iNOS in endothelial and vascular smooth muscle results in increased generation of nitric oxide (NO), which activates guanylate cyclase to increase cyclic guanosine monophosphate and causes smooth muscle relaxation, vasodilatation, and increased vascular permeability. This is the mechanism of action of Methylene Blue in reversing refractory vasoplegia in conditions that can result in exuberant production of NO, such as sepsis, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, or anaphylaxis (Paciullo et al.,

Many of these compounds have been demonstrated to be correlated with various disease states. One of the most heavily studied EBC biomarkers is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). H2O2 concentration in EBC has been shown

Too much H+ ions can cause the blood to become too acidic so the free haemoglobins molecules act as a buffer neutralising the pH change and forming haemoglobonic acid (HHb). A buffer is a compound that maintains a constant pH). The HCO3- ions ‘shift’ with Chloride ions (Cl-) in process called the chloride shift. Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for hydrogen ions than oxygen so the oxyhaemoglobin formed at the alveoli travelling around the blood dissociates forming Hb and 4O2 molecules and the haemoglobin forms more haemoglobonic acid whilst the oxygen is released into the plasma from the blood for the muscles to use for cellular respiration. Eventually the blood reaches the lungs where the HCO3- ions are transported back into the blood in switch for the chloride ions. This produces carbonic acid which dissociates immediately and the carbon dioxide formed is expelled through exhalation (Boundless, Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood,

There are millions of people that have been diagnosed with respiratory diseases among the United States. All the respiratory conditions affect individuals and their families not only in their health but also in their economic aspect. In humans, it is considered normal oxygen concentration between 9.5% to 4.6% but there are parts of the body, as neurons, that are very sensitive to oxygen. Low oxygen concentration in our body tissues is known as hypoxia and consequently your body will not properly function. There are several factors that can contribute to this condition for example, having respiratory problems, diseases or complications, lung damage, drugs and cardiovascular diseases.

Huntington disease (HD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain. It is caused by expansion of CAG repeats in exon 1 of the huntingtin gene, affecting initially the striatum and progressively the cortex. OS is known to play a role in this disease by promoting mutant Huntingtin aggregation and mutant Huntingtin-dependent cell death by mimicking proteasomal malfunction [24]. Several laboratories have demonstrated the existence of oxidative damage in HD brains [30–33] and those antioxidants slow down disease progression [34]. In HD, the initial cause of oxidative insult is the presence of mutant Htt, which has been shown to increase levels of ROS in neuronal and nonneuronal cells [18]. The level of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine,

Glutathione helps to protect cells from reactive oxygen species. GSH checks free radical damage and helps detoxification by conjugating with chemicals. Increase in reactive oxygen species protection causes GSH depletion. GSH acts as cofactor for Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) and Glutathione-S-transferase (GST). Glutathione-S-transferase is thought to play a physiological role in initiating the detoxification and these enzymes catalyse the reaction of such compounds with the -SH group of glutathione, thereby neutralizing their electrophilic sites and rendering the products more water-soluble. GPx is present throughout the tissues as four different isoenzymes, cellular, extracellular glutathione peroxidase, as phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase and gastrointestinal glutathione peroxidase (Alam et al 2013). GPx low activity is one of the early consequences of a disturbance of the prooxidant or antioxidant balance due to toxic exposure. Glutathione reductase plays an important role in maintaining a basic GSH pool, via catalysing the reduction of glutathione disulfide (GSSG) to GSH in NADPH-dependent reaction (Yao Chen et al

H-NS is known as a global regulator which influence the expression of large number of genes in response to various environmental factors like pH, osmolarity or temperature (Atlung and Ingmer, 1997; Dorman, 2007).Numerous studies can have shown the gene regulatory functions of H-NS in E.coli and Salmonella, acting mainly as a ‘gene silencer’(Dorman, 2004; Lucchini et al., 2006).Transcriptomic studies have revealed that H-NS regulates around 1439 genes in S.typhimurium. In uropathogenic E.coli strain, 536, H-NS regulates around 500 genes, including many virulence factors like cytotoxins, fimbriae and siderophores (Muller et al., 2006).H-NS is also responsible for the silencing of horizontally acquired DNA