Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD): A Diagnostic Analysis

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is classified as a syndrome that is comprised of a variety of behaviors that often arises in early childhood and is characterized by extremely high levels of motor activity, difficulties with attention span and concentrating, and/or impulsive behaviors (Cook & Cash, 2011). It has been estimated in the United States that approximately 20% of children and adolescents display signs of a psychological or behavioral disorder according to Luthy, David, Macintosh, Eden, and Beckstrand (2015). ADHD is considered one of the more prevalent psychological disorders in children, with approximately 3-7% of school-age children with an ADHD diagnosis as mentioned by Luthy et al. (2015).

ADHD is linked to a dysregulation in the catecholaminergic systems (dopamine, norepinephrine) in the prefrontal cortex and subcortical regions, both of which are implicated in many cognitive functions such as prioritizing stimuli, impulsivity and attention [3]. Seeing as amphetamines are involved in these same systems, one can see why they can be used to treat problems involving those regions. Amphetamines have a high affinity for catecholamine transporters, especially VMAT2, which a vesicular monoamine transporter that carries newly synthesized monoamines in the cytosol into vesicles at the nerve terminal for storage until they are to be released following an action potential. It competes with endogenous monoamines for transport, and as a result, the cytosol remains full of monoamines because their translocation into vesicles is inhibited. In addition, amphetamines also inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that metabolizes intracellular monoamines, further increasing the level of free monoamines which spurs the VMAT2 to mobilize the monoamines from the cytosol and release them into the synapse, a process called reverse transport [1]. As a result, people with ADHD can function without their usual cognitive impairments. New studies have recently shown that

There are two groups of stimulants: methylphenidate-based medications, which include Ritalin, Concerta, and Metadate, and dextroamphetamine-based medications, which include Adderall, Vyvanse, and Dexedrine (Boorady 2). The two most popular of these groups, Ritalin and Adderall, have these similar side effects: loss of appetite, insomnia, dizziness, nervousness, and prone to raising blood pressure (Ogbru 1). Both of these medications are also similar in short-acting and long-acting formulations, but, according to Susan York Morris, Ritalin is highly preferred over Adderall because it reaches its performance peak much more quickly, and prevents cells from reabsorbing norepinephrines, a precursor of adrenaline (Marcovitch 476), and dopamine, a precursor of norepinephrines that conveys inhibitory in the neurological system (Marcovitch 197), keeping them active in the brain.. (Morris 2). As a child, my parents began the process of testing different medications to treat my ADHD, and they began with Ritalin because it received the majority of positive results. Unfortunately, after random spurts of aggression, irritability, and unrest, they had to try a different medication. Next, they tested Adderall, but the same results occurred, but at greater rates than the

According to the Surgeon General website, “Because the symptoms of ADHD respond well to treatment with stimulants, and because stimulants increase the availability of the neurotransmitter dopamine, the “dopamine hypothesis” has gained a wide following. The dopamine hypothesis posits that ADHD is due to inadequate availability of dopamine in the central nervous system. The neurotransmitter dopamine plays a key role in initiating purposive movement, increasing motivation and alertness, reducing appetite, and inducing insomnia, effects that are often seen when a child responds well to methylphenidate. The dopamine hypothesis has thus driven much of the recent research into the causes of ADHD.” (Surgeon General website). It does make sense that neurotransmitters are involved, since the mechanism of medications that seem to effectively reduce the symptoms of ADHD impacts the neurotransmitters. This may explain why these medications are effective for many people

The views of executive functions on ADHD are based around a conflicting understanding of what executive function is, how it is measured, and how it is related to ADHD. Some view executive function as being measurable by traditional neuropsychological “tests of EF,” and only a small amount of individuals with ADHD, about one-third, have impairments of executive function (Brown, 2006). In contrast, Barklely and Brown claims that all individuals who have ADHD have significant executive function impairments, and these impairments are the core of the disorder (Brown, 2006). They also argue that executive function deficits cannot be measured by traditional neuropsychological “tests of EF.” Instead, they believe that these impairments are better measured

ADHD, a neurological disorder, can affect the normal functioning of the brain and the nervous system in a person (Dodson)(Kinman). In the brain, the frontal cortex, also known as the frontal lobe, and the motor cortex are specific parts that can be affected by ADHD (Kinman). Normally, the frontal cortex develops a person’s personality and performs higher cognitive tasks such as planning (Frontal). It is also responsible for attention, reason, memory, and inhibition as well (Kinman). In addition, the frontal lobe is important in being able to speak fluently to others (Frontal). Because of ADHD, the frontal cortex is involved in cortical thinning. This area of the brain also matures slower in children with ADHD. There is a chance that some children

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (“ADHD”) is a common childhood disorder that represents developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, impulsivity and overactivity. It occurs in 3% to 5% of the school age population as stated by (Craighead, Craighead, Kazdin & Mahoney, 1994). Another author (Barkley, 1981) stated that ADHD occurs in at least one child in every classroom. As a result of these statistics, ADHD has become one of the most commonly referred and heavily studied psychological disorders of childhood. Studies show that about 50-60% of children with ADHD in the age range of five to seven years are hostile and defiant. By the

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder has a complicated and interesting history and because of that it is important to understands this disorders implications and comorbidity to better treat and diagnose it. Research done by the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shows that 11% of the US population between the ages of 4-17 are affected with ADHD; that’s 6.4 million children and the prevalence of diagnosis is only increasing (2016). It was generally assumed that ADHD was something children would grow out of but new studies show that approximately 4% of the adult population in the US are still suffering from ADHD or have developed ADHD (Breyer, J. L., Lee, S., Winters, K. C., August, G. J., & Realmuto, G. M. 2014). ADHD is

To add to that, the research that has been conducted on the disorder has led to a variety of effective treatments. According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (2014) the most widely used medication is a stimulant. There is a wide variety of stimulants available for ADHD subjects. Although, with these stimulants come side effects including sleep problems, decreased appetite, anxiety and other diverse uncommon side effects (NIMH, 2014). Stimulants tend to calm children with ADHD. However, these medications can be detrimental to the patient in many ways. Certain medications have been subject to abuse, including Adderall and Ritalin. These medications are in some cases abused by patients who are over diagnosed. Since these patients do not have the disorder they can feel the side effects and use the drug to achieve a certain kind of high. When using these drugs for non-medical purposes they can seem to replicate the effects of cocaine

Raj and other researchers performed. These patients were to take both NRI, the drug that blocks the action of the norepinephrine transporter protein, with atomoxetine, cognition-enhancing medication. The patients were also prescribed a placebo, a harmless medication that serves as a physiological prescription, at a different time. They did not know what medication they were taking at what time. After the patients underwent days of their medication, Satish R. Raj and other researcher’s gathered the patient’s burden of nine symptoms – headaches, blurred vision, mental clouding, shortness of breath, rapid heartbeat, chest discomfort, tremulousness (shakiness), lightheadedness, and nausea (Satish R. Raj). Along with this data, the researchers also recorded the heart rate (HR) and blood pressure of each patient. All data was collected two hours after a standing study as well as two hours after a seated study. When the heart rate was recorded after the standing study, there was “a significant increase in HR” (Satish R. Raj) for the NRI with atomoxetine intake. The placebo had not caused any effect during the standing study. “Baseline seated HR was not significantly different between atomoxetine and placebo” (Satish R. Raj). The difference between the standing and seated studies did not affect the data because the researchers also collected data after four hours of the seated study and the results suggested that there was an ample increase of the HR during the NRI medication compared to the placebo. The only aspect that did not change significantly during the treatment of NRI was blood pressure and the “atomoxetine was associated with… a trend toward higher standing SBP” (Satish R. Raj). This suggests that even if there wasn’t a significant change in blood pressure if more time passed by of the treatment of NRI and if the patient contributed to a longer standing test, the patient would have much

The purpose of this research was to describe and understand Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the most effective treatment options that are available today. ADHD is a mental health disorder that affects 3-9% of the population in ways that, if left untreated, can wreak havoc on the mind of the sufferer. It makes concentration difficult, large tasks seem insurmountable, and causes impulsive and hyperactive tendencies. Fortunately, research and experiments have led to new and effective treatments to help those who suffer from this disorder (Dupaul 8). This research examined journal articles and internet sources on the topic to help unlock the complexities of the disorder through scientific research. It also was a way to

ADHD is an abbreviation for attention deficit/hyper activity disorder. It is commonly referred to as a psychiatric disorder in need of therapy. The origination of the disease is in the neuro-physiological brain construct, and the main cause of the disorder is considered to be genetic (Wilson, 2012). Many children with ADHD struggle with impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention (Unnever, Cullen, & Pratt, 2003). According to McNamara, Vervaeke, and Willoughby (2008), “attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is the most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder among children and adolescents. It affects between 3% and 5% of school age children” (p. 38). In a

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), is a neurobehavioral disorder that affects school aged children with a high degree of inattention, excessive hyperactivity, impulsivity or a combination of any of these. In order for a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, there must be two different environments in which the child has displayed his or her symptoms and it must occur before the child is twelve years of age (Halter, 2014). Children have a high comorbidity level with developmental, learning and psychiatric problems. There are three types of ADHD; inattentive type, hyperactive-impulsive type and combination type. With inattentive type the child displays disorganization, is unable to complete tasks, becomes easily bored, and

“Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition affecting children and adults that is characterized by problems with attention, impulsivity, and overactivity” (CHADD). “It is a neurobiological disorder that affect 3-7 percent of school age children and may be seen as before the age of 7. The current diagnostic label is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, however, in the past several other names have been used, such as brain-damaged, minimal brain dysfunction, hyperkinetic impulsive disorder, and attention deficit disorder (CHADD). ADHD is a controversial disorder. Some understand it to be a true disability, while others believe “good teaching and discipline at home resolve the problems” (Kauffman 2005).

According to the research conducted by Dr. Laura A. King, the Frederick A. Middlebush Professor of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri, Columbia, “ADHD is one of the most commonly diagnosed neurobehavioral disorders of childhood, in which individuals show at least one of the following: impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention.”