Hypothalamus Metabolic Rate

The patient in “The Red Hat Hikers” scenario is suffering from hyponatremia. Hyponatremia is defined as a serum sodium level of less than 136mEq/L. Sodium is an electrolyte that is found predominately in the extracellular fluid, and it is the chief regulator of water in the body. Sodium is also important for muscle contraction, nerve impulses, acid-base balance and chemical reactions that occur inside the cell (McCance & Huether, 2014). Normal sodium levels in the body are maintained by the kidneys and the hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex at the completion of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and it helps stimulate the proximal tubules of the kidneys to reabsorb sodium and water. The anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also indirectly affects sodium levels because it regulates water balance in the body (McCance & Huether, 2014).

There is a delay in the onset of diuresis after loading in the control subject as it takes time for the water to be filtered in the body. Water is absorbed from the gut into the extracellular fluid. Osmoreceptors from the posterior pituitary detect the water through cell stretch and initiate responses that control ADH secretion (Widmaier et al., 2014). Fluids are filtered through the kidneys and the excess water is transported to the bladder where it will then be excreted.

1.INTRODUCTION A Diuretic is any substance that promotes the production of urine. This includes forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way. Alternatively, an antidiuretic such as vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone, is an agent or drug which reduces the excretion of water in urine.Diuretics increase the rate of urine flow and sodium excretion and are used to adjust the volume and/or composition of body fluids in a variety of clinical situations, including hypertension, heart failure, renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, and cirrhosis. By definition, diuretics are drugs that increase the rate of urine flow; however, clinically useful diuretics also increase the rate of excretion of Na+ (natriuresis) and of an accompanying anion, usually Cl-. NaCl in the body is the major determinant of extracellular fluid volume, and most clinical

I. Describe the role of the following hormones in the formation of urine, specifically explain the stimulus for their release, actions (decrease/increase GFR) and whether or not dilute/concentrated urine results): ADH (Vasopressin) – ADH has an antidiuretic action that prevents the production of dilute urine. Formation of urine = in the DCT

Calcium can sometimes act like a natural diuretic, helping the kidneys release sodium and water. Also, when calcium levels in the blood drop, parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released, which causes calcium to be released from the bones to increase calcium blood levels and PTH can raise blood pressure. Scientists are still trying to figure out how and why, but

The endocrine system is a group of glands distributed throughout the human body. This group of glands secretes substances called hormones. These hormones are dumping into the bloodstream (Shier, Butler & Lewis, 2009). The endocrine system does not have a single anatomic location. It is dispersed throughout the human body.

Introduction There is a pair of kidneys in the human body. They are situated towards the back of the body under the ribs, just at the level of the waist where one on either side of the body. Each kidney is composed of about one million units which are called nephrons and each nephron consists of two parts: a filter which is called the glomerulus and a tubule leading out from the nephron (Cameron 1999). According to Marshall and Bangert (2008) the kidneys have three major functions. Firstly, the kidneys are excretion of waste from plasma in the blood. The second function is that, they maintain of extracellular fluid volume and composition. Lastly, the kidneys have a role in hormone synthesis.

The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure (Benson, 2016); it is a portion of the brain containing a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. The hypothalamus has considerable functions of linking the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland also called hypophysis. The location of the hypothalamus is directly below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system (Benson, 2016). In the human body, the hypothalamus controls some of the metabolic processes including some other activities of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). All vertebrate brain contain a hypothalamus. The most significant effect of injuries to or abnormalities in the hypothalamus on behavior are the changes in the individual’s digestive

Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders affect millions of people worldwide. Pathogenesis of these diseases is not already well known. Thus, diagnosis and choice of treatment is mainly based on classification of symptoms. Previously simple metabolic pathway analysis approaches, in which usually one cascade is studied, allowed to determine various perturbations in biological systems present under CNS pathological states, but seem insufficient to obtain an overall picture of a system metabolism. It means that novel approaches are firmly needed. Metabolomics offers a novel and promising perspective to understand global metabolism. Approaches applied allow to investigate several metabolic pathways simultaneously (targeted metabolomics) or unbiased

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus. Being just the size of pea, the pituitary gland has huge role in the brain. It has three sections know as the anterior, intermediate, and the posterior lobes. To begin, the anterior lobe is primarily involved with the development of the body, maturation, and reproduction. The hormones produced by the anterior lobe adjust growth, stimulates adrenal and thyroid glands along with the ovaries and testes. The anterior lobe also generates prolactin which allows new mothers to produce milk. Then there is the intermediate lobe which releases a hormone that stimulates the cells that control pigmentation known as the melanocytes. Lastly, there is the posterior lobe

First, its releasing and inhibiting hormones control the secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary gland. Second, its supraoptic and periventricular nuclei produce the hormone ADH and oxytocin. (Marieb, 2014, pg. 446) In short, the hypothalamus controls the flow of hormones in the body to maintain homeostatic levels.

It retains substances needed by the body, including water, glucose, amino acids, and ions, such as sodium potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phostphate. Reabsorption of Na+ is especially important because more of them pass the glomerular filter than any other substance except water. Sodium ions are reabsorbed in each portion of the renal tubule by several transport systems. Active transport of Na+ promotes reabsorption of water by osmosis. The loss of water from the filtrate creates a concentration gradient for some substances, such as K+, Cl-, HC03-, and urea, that promotes their reabsorption by passive diffusion. The loop of henle reabsorbs about 30% of the filtered K+, 20% filtered Na+, 35% of filtered Cl-, and 15% of the filtered water. Here reabsorption of water by osmosis is not automatically coupled to reabsorption of filtered solutes. Thus, there can only be independent regulation of both your total body water and the osmotic pressure of body fluids. Two hormones, Aldosterone, and Antidiuretic Hormone or ADH, regulate reabsorption in the final portion of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts. About 90% of the reabsorbed water occurs with the reabsorption of solutes such as sodium and glucose, the rest is regulated by ADH. Whereas tubular reabsorption returns substances from the filtrate to the blood, tubular secretion removed materials that are not needed by the body from the blood and adds them to the filtrate. Secreted substances include potassium, hydrogen, and ammonium ions, as well as certain drugs and wastes. Tubular secretion has two principle effects, rids the body of certain materials, and helps to control blood pH by secreting H+ ions and increasing or decreasing HC03-

This detection is inputted to the brain as electrical impulses where the sensation of thirst is then outputted. Once water has been consumed, the system stabilizes again.

There are important systems that are involved in the control for homeostatic of osmoregulation which occurs in a negative feedback control cycle. To prevent the loss or gain of water from the cell in the body, the water potential of the blood is regulated which is controlled by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus in the brain is able to notice changes in the water potential through a type of neuron that is permanently present called osmoreceptors (- negative feedback ‘receptor’ for osmoregulation) that are capable of detecting water concentration/ water potential of blood as it passes through the hypothalamus through the osmoreceptors that they send out. The hypothalamus (- negative feedback ‘controller’ for osmoregulation) receives the message

OPTIMIZING AND VALIDATING THE HYPOTHALAMIC HUNGER REGULATION MATHEMATICAL MODEL Ms. Divya1, Dr. Saurabh Mukherjee2 1Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science, AIM & ACT, Banasthali University, Banasthali-304022, email: jangid.divya@gmail.com Hypothalamus has a significant effect on the physiological functions of human body like Hunger regulation, Energy balance etc. A mathematical model is