Hypothetical Screening

You may be screened for cervical cancer more often if you have risk factors for cervical cancer

Harms related to cervical cancer screening with a Pap Smear are related to abnormal results. Abnormal results of a Pap Smear can cause short-term psychological harms that include anxiety and distress (USPSTF, 2016a). Abnormal results can also lead to further or more frequent testing (USPSTF, 2016a). Diagnostic procedure harms include vaginal bleeding, pain, and infection (USPSTF, 2016a). Harms of cervical treatment primarily include risks related to “adverse pregnancy outcomes” which include preterm delivery, low birthweight, and perinatal death (USPSTF, 2016a). Harms related to cervical treatment are also associated with false-positives (USPSTF, 2016a). Thus, overtreatment can be detrimental to the patient (USPSTF, 2016a).

Due to the rare occurrence of such events, the research has been difficult to develop practical strategies for large amount of screening process. The degree of difficulty in terms of data collected by the researchers has been significant as it is hard to get a true absolute number of these events.

Early detection of breast and cervical cancer reduced the burden of disease in women. The practices of Screening shown reduce the level of mortality and improve quality of life. The Every Woman Matters (EWM)stared in 1992 it is a federally-funded program designed to remove barrier to early screening by providing awareness and make screening more financially accessible to woman who have limited or no health insurance. The eligible women receive pay for office visits with associated clinical breast examination, pelvic examination, Papanicolaou smear test, and lab fees (Backer et al., 2004). Age-appropriate mammography and limited number of diagnostic test is also covered under program. In this paper I will

Early detection of breast and cervical cancer reduced the burden of disease in women. The practices of Screening shown reduce the level of mortality and improve quality of life. The Every Woman Matters (EWM)stared in 1992 it is a federally-funded program designed to remove barrier to early screening by providing awareness and make screening more financially accessible to woman who have limited or no health insurance. The eligible women receive pay for office visits with associated clinical breast examination, pelvic examination, Papanicolaou smear test, and lab fees (Backer et al., 2004). Age-appropriate mammography and limited number of diagnostic test is also covered under program. In this paper I will

Almost all cervical carcinomas are caused by Human papillomavirus (HPV). Cervical cancer can be a life-threating disease. However, over recent years the occurrence of cervical cancer has declined as well as the chance of dying from it. A huge contributing factor to this decline is the importance of a regular pap smear. A pap smear can find cervical pre-cancer before it turns into cancer. Recently, a vaccine for HPV, has been on the market, which provides close to a 100% protection against pre-cancer and general warts. HPV and cervical cancer are two disease that are closely related. However, each disease effects not only similar populations, but also different populations, as well as having its own signs and symptoms, detection procedures,

Although most studies suggest there is no single, clear, agreed upon profile, it is unanimous that there is a need for an informative, clinical diagnosis that can be used for future screening and prevention

Cervical cancer is one of the highly popular disease for the women. Different programmes has been made up to fight against this deadly disease. New Zealand has one of the best screening programmes in the world. The establishment of National Cervical Cancer Screening Programme in NZ in 1990 had reduced a significant number of 60% of women who develop cervical cancer and who die from it since it was built. More than 1 million New Zealander women are enrolled in this programme and 95 % are eligible. The Cervical Cancer screening programme aims to; informing women about the importance of having the cervical screening tests; promoting cervical screening tests on a regular basis to women aged 20–70; ensuring high-quality and culturally appropriate services; supporting women with abnormal tests; ensuring there is regular monitoring to see that the goals of the programme are being met. The NCSP also acknowledges the importance of the Treaty of Waitangi in providing a screening programme that is successful for all New Zealand women.

Though possibly uncomfortable at first, a pelvic examination is extremely important to your reproductive health. During this examination, your gynecologist will check your vulva for any possible infections, and then look to take cell samples from inside of your vagina in order to check for any possible sexually transmitted infections. During this point, your gynecologist may also do a pap smear, which involves scraping off sample cells from your cervix to be checked for any possible abnormal cells. Both of these steps are vital for checking to make sure you are clear of the Human papillomavirus (otherwise known as HPV, or simply put, genital warts). A study done by Kari P Braaten and Marc R Laufer has revealed that roughly 70% of cervical cancers found in women in 2008 were caused by the HPV virus. If you have not already received the HPV vaccination from your regular doctor, you can talk to your gynecologist about receiving the vaccination from them.

Moreover, with forward movements in technology, “cancer screenings have been shown to successfully identify pre-cancerous cells before they have metastasized, thus reducing a person's cancer risk by nearly half,” (Lee, 108). Observation is the most commonly used examination for early cancer screening. Observation by a physician is effective in recognizing suspicious lesions of the skin, larynx, lip, mouth, cervix, and external genitalia. Palpitation is the next most commonly used early cancer screening. It is mainly beneficial in detecting nodules, tumors, or lumps in the breast, salivary glands, mouth, subcutaneous tissues, thyroid, rectum, anus, prostate, testes, uterus, and ovaries. It can also detect enlarged lymph nodes in the axilla, neck, and groin. Cancers that are internal need a broadening of observation through x-rays, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, and endoscopes. Also, laboratory test such as occult blood testing of the feces and the Pap smear have proven useful in the detection of some of the types

Screening refers to testing individuals without a known condition. Screening is done to identify whether these particular individuals have the malady. In most cases, early detection of the disease means early treatment which results to better and superior treatment (Watson, Templeton & Russell et al, 2002). The selection and use of screening instruments should be determined by various factors. Validity is one of the factors that should be considered in the use of an instrument. This is the capability of the instrument used in the process to provide true and correct measurements. Reliability of the instrument should also be considered as it refers to the ability of the testing kit to measure and present consistent results for the same trial

These screening tests may not make a definitive diagnosis and high risk results of these tests should be evaluated with other confirmatory tests.

Despite these difficulties, researchers have reported the benefits of health screening. The most recognised benefit according to Durojaiye (2009) is that it is effective in reducing morbidity and mortality from disease by detecting it before symptoms occur. A report in 2006 by the Advisory Committee on Breast Cancer Screening showed that screening saves 1,400 lives a year in England. In Australia, the age-standardized breast cancer mortality rate in women of all ages declined significantly from 28 per 100,000 women in 1996 to 24 per 100,000 in 2005. Mortality from breast cancer among women aged 50-69 was reported to have declined from 62 deaths per 100,000 in 1996 to 52 deaths per 100,000 in 2005 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008) . The screening of pregnant women to identify and intervene early with risks to their health and that of their babies are associated with improved health status among high-risk populations (Durojaiye, 2009). The idea of screening therefore is to prevent, not to cure. Wardle & Pope (1992) state that screening is the second best prevention option, but one which provides the best chance of saving lives in our present state of knowledge. It may also provide welcome reassurance especially to many women that they do not have cancer. If the screening consultations are used wisely, an

Screening participants are also self-selected and therefore cannot be assumed to be identical to non-participants with respect to disease risk.

Cervical cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer related mortality in countries such as India accounting for more than 17% of all cancer deaths in women aged 30-69. [3] Cervical cancer is one such type of cancer in which screening plays a significant role. Clinical trials done in below poverty level populations do encounter ethical issues to a certain extent with regards to informed consent as most or all of these patients are illiterate. However informed consent is extremely important when justifying data for such clinical trials. Countries such as US have implemented Pap smear screening as one of the most important cervical cancer screening methods. In countries as densely populated as India where proper healthcare facilities does not reach slums and extremely poverty stricken societies, alternatives for screening are indicated- VIA or Visual inspection with acetic acid