Integrating Neurobiology And Psychology For New Treatment Targets

Answer 1: Glial cells are cells that surround neurons and provide support for and insulation between them. Glial cells are also the most abundant cells in the central nervous system. Types of glial cells include oligodendrocytes, which have processes that form the myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers, astrocytes the most abundant CNS neuroglia, ependymal cells that line cerebrospinal fluid cavities, microglia cells that are the defensive cells in the CNS, schwann cells and satellite cells, which form myelin sheaths around CNS never fibers.

The brain can be considered the most complex organ in the body and the centrepiece of the nervous system. Although the brain works as a unified whole, neuroscientists have identified areas within it that perform specific functions. This makes the brain interconnected by three different layers: the central core, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. All of which contain structures that regulate everyday life and psychological function.

As the child grows up, bipolar disorder may affect the size, shape, and function of the brain. Experts believe bipolar disorder is partly caused when brain chemicals called neurotransmitters are unbalanced. Humans have three chemicals in their brain called noradrenaline, serotonin, and dopamine. Noradrenaline and serotonin have been known to link to psychiatric mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder. Dopamine has to do with the pleasure system of the brain. Disruption to the dopamine system is connected to psychosis and schizophrenia, two mental disorders characterized by distortions in reality and illogical thought patterns and behaviors.

This source gives the readers an in-depth overview of Bipolar Disorder and the causes of having the mental health issue. There’s a great distinction between the ups and downs people experience and bipolar disorder. Due to the ups and downs teens and children experience, bipolar disorder is hard to diagnose during those early years. The National Center of Biotechnology Information’s research program is run by Senior Investigators, Tenure Track Investigators, Staff Scientists, and Postdoctoral Fellows which makes the source credible. The source contained

While there is no cure for schizophrenia, research is leading to new, safer treatments. Experts also are unraveling the causes of the disease by studying genetics, conducting behavioral research, and by using advanced imaging to look at the brain’s structure and function. These novel approaches hold the promise of new, more effective therapies.

In the article found on medical daily, most mental disorders are based on imbalances in the brain. Researchers have found a particular protein that alters long-term memory and is connected to the development of both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. (Singh , A. (n.d.))

Microglia can be thought of as the guardians of the brain, and protect it from things such as disease. Microglia cells are an essential element in the brains ability to sustain overall maintenance and homeostasis, and constantly monitor the central nervous system for plaques, extra or damaged neurons and synapses, as well as infectious agents. Essentially, Microglia can be thought of as the brains first immune defense in the central nervous system. Microglia cells are phagocytic, which means that they engulf bacteria and debris, which is so eloquently exemplified by the glymphatic system. According to (Matcovitch-Natan et al. 2016) Microglia derives from erythromyeloid progenitors that travel to the brain, which are thought to begin at embryonic day 8.5, and will continue to do so until the blood brain barrier is fully formed. After this process occurs, self-renewal will be the only source of new microglia in the brain. As the brain begins to develop, microglia need to be adaptive to the changing needs of the brain, and will engage in synapse pruning, neurogeisis. One of the first steps in pruning synapses

Another study that was conducted on the treatment of bipolar disorder was “Metabonomic analysis identifies molecular changes associated with the pathophysiology and drug treatment of bipolar disorder”. The point of this study was to observe a spectroscopy-based metabonomic analysis in order to identify molecular changes in the post-mortem brain tissue of patients who have died from bipolar effective disorder (Lan, 2008, p.1). This is the first conducted study to observe post-mortem bipolar human brain tissue and is the first to compare the changes in a diseased brain with the changes that occur in rat brain after a mood stabilizer treatment. This study was conducted in laboratories in order to observe the whole process. There was seventy-eight

Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are considered to be “immune system-like”; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present. Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G-protein-coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron migration during development.

years later, brain scientists assumed that neurons connected within one another. Glial Cells represented our thoughts and that glia were kind of like stucco and grout holding the house composed. They were well-thought-out as modest insulators for neuron communication. There are some rare kinds of glial cells, but recently scientist’s experts have begun to focus on a more precise brand of glial cell called the 'astrocyte,' as they are rich in the cortex. Technologists have also exposed that astrocytes connect to themselves in the cortex and are also gifted of sending information to neurons. Finally, astrocytes are also the mature stem

This experiment was done to determine the main purpose Muller cells, a type of glial cell, and its cell regions have in the body. The Muller cell’s endfoot was of particular interest, and scientists wanted to observe the affects the endfoot has on conductance and resistance, as well as its overall purpose. The results from this experiment could then provide us with a more generalized view of the purpose that other glial cells, especially astrocytes, have in the brain. It was hypothesized that if most of the Muller cell’s conductance was located in the endfoot, then the resistance in the endfoot would also vary significantly compared to the rest of the cell and this would have huge impacts on how potassium ions removed from

The discovery of glial cells in the mid-19th century opened numerous doors in neuroscience research; nevertheless, many scientists have sustained a highly neuron-specific perspective all along. Neurons do play the major role in regulating brain function, but glial cells were always thought to only serve and protect their omnipotent counterparts. “Glia number equally or even more than neurons in the brain, so how could we forget such a big population of cells?” Guoping Feng asked.

Microglia serve as the resident innate immune cells of the brain parenchyma which play different roles in adult and developing CNS ranging from immunological surveillance to neurological preservation.17,18 Although microglia are the primary cells involved in innate immunity in the CNS, astrocytes and neurons also take part in immune response.19 Microglia were firstly identified as rod-shaped nucleus containing cells in the brain over one-hundred years ago and were named Staebchenzellen.20 Microglia with the capacity for self-renewal and long-living originate from myeloid progenitors within the yolk sac and migrate to the developing CNS during early embryogenesis. They are different from the cells derived from the bone marrow by haematopoiesis and from the blood circulating cells.21,22 These phagocytes make up approximately 10% of heterogeneous cell population in CNS and trigger both innate and adaptive immunities in neuroinflammation.12,13

Human brain consists of billions of cells interconnected together, with each performing its separate functions. It consists of two explicit categories of nerves: neurons and glia cells. Neuron is a single nerve cell in the entire nervous system; which is electrically excitable cell that carries information after being processed via chemical or electrical signals. One of its key characteristics is that it does not undergo cell division. In addition, it maintains a voltage gradient for all the neurons across its membranes. Glia cells, on the other hand, its functionality is to maintain homeostasis.

“Schizophrenia, a complex and often disabling mental illness, is among the most serious of brain diseases” (Veague 1).To some