Interpersonal Studies

The early years of life provide the foundation for a child’s social development. Social development is a gradual process and the rates of social development vary among children, however, children are active learners and have ample opportunities to learn. Social development involves the learning and skill building that enables children to effectively relate to others and to contribute to their family, school, and community in a positive way. The social development of a child is influenced by many factors including attachment, temperament, self-esteem, and emotional reactions. This essay will further examine these four factors and the effects they have on the early social development of children. For the purpose of this paper, the focus will

Parenting and attachment styles influence the temperament during infancy and toddler years. Parenting styles are strategies and techniques that parents use during child rearing. Attachment refers to a secure emotional connection, such as a union among a mother and child. Temperament is the nature of an individual in which affects behavior. Parenting and attachment work hand in hand with influencing the temperament of the child. Three types of children are form upon identifying the characteristics of their behavior; the easy child, the difficult child and the slow-to-warm-up child (Berk, 2010). The easy child embrace new experiences and form consistent schedules. The difficult child is challenged by new experiences and often display negative reactions. The slow-to-warm-up child shy away from routine and gradually envelope new experiences. These characteristics of the child ultimately express their social-emotional development, which is influenced by their initial interaction with parents and caregivers. In example, the easy child’s parents provides high levels of trust, encouraging the infant with feeling secure. In return, the child feels as though the world is trustworthy, making is easier to face new experiences. This dictates the behavior they express toward others. Parenting and forms of attachment play an essential role in both the temperament and social-emotional development of the child. Furthermore, an analysis of the affects that authoritative and permissive

Szewczyk-Sokolowski, M., Bost, K. K., & Wainwright, A. B. (2005). Attachment, Temperament, and Preschool Children's Peer Acceptance. Social Development, 14(3), 379-397. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00307.x

Treatment strategies are not as well established for disorganized attachment as they are with other attachments. However, there is a critical need to develop these strategies as this particular population struggles immensely with issues such as self-regulation, the development and maintenance of relationships, as well as many other conditions that affect their daily lives. An important and critical time for treatment is during early childhood, as the longer a person struggles with disorganized attachment, the more difficult it is to treat and correct that attachment. There are a number of different treatments that may be utilized, and researchers are in the process of determining their effectiveness. There have been some case studies that have discussed the potential for individual therapies that have a focus on both emotional regulation and the growth of relational abilities through non-directive play according to Zilberstein (2010, p.89) Other studies have instead choose to focus on the changes that are elicited through the basic parent-child

Although secure attachment during infancy is the foundation for continued healthy positive development during the lifespan, it is important to understand that other factors can have a significant effect on development later in life (i.e. illness, loss, and trauma). However, research has shown the importance of consistent care giving that is responsive and nurturing and the caregivers’ ability to effectively accommodate more difficult temperament characteristics ,as well as other factors, influence the development of healthy attachment{{64 Bakermans-Kranenburg, Marian 2003}}. Research has also shown that infancy and early childhood is the period of development where scaffolding begins and continues (Vygotsky, 1978; Zhao & Orey,1999).

Early attachments of children to their caregivers are a widely studied subject among psychologists. Childhood attachment theories draw their theses and components from cognitive, behavioral, and psychoanalytic branches of psychology; in the form that attachments deals with what a child is thinking, doing, and the analyses of these attachments in later life (Weiten, 2005). "Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers." (Weiten, 2005) The age that attachments start forming is usually between 6 to 9 months, depending on the child; prior to this, a child can be handed off to babysitters with little protest, but after attachments begin forming children may develop separation anxiety (Weiten, 2005, Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2009).

The fourth and final stage begins the transition into more complicated processes. Toddlers around the age of two begin to reciprocate actions, such as smiling in relationships, as well as understanding and developing their independence away from caregivers. If caregivers of young children allow them to go through the attachment building process without disruptions, the children learn the skills necessary to connect appropriately with peers. Such skills include trust, positive self-esteem, independence and autonomy, impulse and emotion management, and resiliency to adversity (“In-home treatment”;

Researchers have replicated Ainworths and Wittig’s (1969) Strange Situation experiment, using the results for further research. Kochanski (2001) investigated development in children with differing attachments through a longitudinal study. During ages 9 to 33 months, the bond between infant and caregiver clearly impacted on the infants’ emotional development. 54% of infants were initially found to have a secure attachment with their primary caregiver, and were very distressed during separation. However, at 33 months emotions were calmer, and became less angry. Conversely, 46% of the infants were described as insecurely attached. Both resistant and avoidant were most fearful and least joyful. Further, negative emotions increased by age 33 months. 2% of infants where unclassifiable as they became increasingly angry as more negative emotions developed.

This child observation will draw on a child developmental theory to discuss the activities of the child I have observed. I will comment on the child’s physical growth and development, cognitive abilities, health, social relationships and emotional wellbeing. I will also look at the child’s interaction with other children and adults , in order to appreciate the child’s development and account for differences and similarities as proffered by my chosen theory of Attachment.

The issue of attachment is one that influences an individual throughout their life, affecting many aspects of their development. It is first formed during infancy between the child and their primary care giver and is maintained over the course of their lifespan. The level of attachment that is formed during infancy creates a foundation for psychological development in the course of the individual’s life (Santrock, 2013). Attachment security can be an indication of the quality of an individual’s future relationships, as well as challenges that may arise from such interactions. The following will discuss the attachment theory, biological influences of attachment, factors that contribute to the type of attachment formed during infancy and early childhood, and its impact and complications throughout each stage of development from infancy through late adulthood.

Through much research and experimentation, it has been proven that there are three main attachment styles that children might have. These three forms of attachment include: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and ambivalent attachment (Grison, 2016, p.128). Based on those attachment patterns observed by Mary Ainsworth’s “Strange-Situation Test”, a child who has a secure attachment with their caregiver will be “distressed when the caregiver leaves and quickly comforted when they return” (p.128). Oppositely, a child with an avoidant attachment is “not distressed when the caregiver leaves and avoids them when they return” (p.128). In addition, an ambivalent attachment is reflected when a child is “inconsolably upset when the caregiver leaves and will both seek and reject caring contact when the caregiver returns” (p. 128). Each of these types of attachment result directly from the relationship that a child has with their parents. If a child spends a lot of time with their parents, they are

Past literature has emphasized the importance of secure attachment bonds in childhood and their impact on social (Bohlin, Hahekull, & Rydell, 2000) emotional (Waters, Virmani, Thompson, Meyer, & Jochem, 2010) and cognitive (Bernier, Beauchamp, Carlson, & Lalonde, 2015) functioning. High-quality caregiver-infant relationships are critical for development and protect against later psychopathology. As mentioned by Bowlby (1969/1982), early infant interactions with caregivers become internalized and serve as internal models for later relationships. These working models influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and determine whether a child will develop a secure or insecure attachment style. Maternal sensitivity is seen as central to secure attachment (Ainsworth, Blehar, Water, & Wall, 1978). Attachment figures who display high levels of sensitivity and responsiveness (i.e., appropriately responding to and attending to their children’s cues) promotes secure attachment. The construct of emotional availability successfully captures these important parental qualities and reflects the dyadic nature of caregiver-child relationships.

Traditional research on Attachment Theory focuses on the bonds created between infants and their caregivers within the first few years of life. When tested, these children typically display an “organized” pattern of behavior when seeking comfort and safety from their caregiver. Organized attachments are those that follow a specific pattern of behavior and are clearly defined as secure, insecure—avoidant, or insecure—ambivalent. However, there remains a percentage of children who fail to engage in predictable behavior when seeking comfort. Essentially, these children behave indiscriminately towards their caregivers and strangers. With no set boundaries by which they seek and receive comfort, their behavior is classified as “disorganized.” New research in this field of study shows the importance in distinguishing the differences between “organized” and “disorganized” types rather than only observing the traditional types of attachment. While examining this new perspective in attachment theory, we speculate whether a lack of goal oriented behavior to seek comfort and safety will in turn lead to an increased risk in psychopathology in early childhood and adolescence.

The attachment risk model is a single factor main effect model. The unit of analysis of the model is twofold. From the time of the child’s birth until two years of age, the unit of analysis is the mother and after two years, the child becomes the unit. The cause is seen as maternal sensitivity during the critical period. After the critical period, the cause becomes endogenous, or within the child’s foundation. The outcomes are first seen in the child’s behavior at time one. There are four behaviors that are observed: separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, exploration, and reunion behavior. These behaviors are measured by what Mary Ainsworth called the “Strange Situation,” which produces four different groups. Group A is the “avoidant and insecure” group. These children are unable to self soothe when their mother leaves, displaying strong separation anxiety. However, they avoid her when she returns. Group B children are “securely” attached. Group C children are “resistant” or “insecure and infirm.” They are unable to self soothe. Group D children are “dazed and disorganized,” displaying an inability to self soothe

Introduction To effectively understand a child’s behavior, there are various factors to be considered: biological, neurobiological, environmental, psychological, social and physical. While growing up, children often create both emotional and physical associations to the environments around them (Cozolino, 2014). Cozolino further notes that while growing up, social deprivation can adversely affect children’s growth and development, and thus at every stage of a child’s development, the human contact is essential as this contributes to wholesome development. Keating (2011), on the other hand, notes that when factors that contribute to a child’s normal growth and development are insufficient in their environment, such an occurrence could lead to