Ketamine Essay

Major depressive disorder is one of the most common mental disorders, with a 12-month prevalence of 6.7% of adults in the United States (NIMH). There is no definite etiology of depression, but several risk factors have been identified. Functional and structural changes in the brain have also been explored. The most common treatment for depression is the use of drugs that act on monoamine transmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Decreases in these transmitters, especially serotonin, were hypothesized to play an important role in the cause of depression (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). The serotonin hypothesis led to the development of selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the amount of serotonin in the brain. Further research suggests that the serotonin hypothesis is not entirely accurate and the neurobiology of depression is much more complex. The “chemical imbalance” explanation of depression may not reflect the full range of causes and may be given greater credibility by patients and doctors than is supported by evidence based research.

Many people with mild to moderate depression can be successfully treated with psychotherapy and other non medical interventions such as bright light; exercise; relaxation techniques; eliminating the use of substances like recreational drugs, alcohol and caffeine; getting regular sleep; eating a balanced diet; and stress reduction. But when these interventions have been tried and failed, or when a patient's depression is severe enough to interfere with their ability to function in their work, relationships, and self-care, doctors will recommend antidepressant medications as well. There are several different classes of antidepressants to choose from, including older medications called monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclics; selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs); norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake inhibitors; and others. Despite the differences in these medications' effects on neurotransmitters, chemical properties, side effects, and pharmaceutical company advertising, they all are EQUALLY EFFECTIVE in treating depression. The choice between them, therefore, is made on the basis of other factors. When deciding which antidepressants may be best for a given patient, a doctor should take into consideration several factors. The first is the patient's history. If a patient has

Description: Ketamine is a nonbarbiturate, sedative hypnotic used parenterally to provide anesthesia for short diagnostic and surgical procedures. It is also used as an inducing agent, as an adjunct to supplement low-potency anesthetics such as nitrous oxide, and as a supplement to local and regional anesthesia. Ketamine can be used concomitantly with muscle relaxants without complication because it does not provide muscle relaxation of its own. It is a fairly short-acting agent that provides a profound, rapid, dissociative state and a short recovery time.

the drugs used to treat depression is tricyclic antidepressant ( to fra anil and Elavil,the monoamine oxidase inhibitors ).

The history of antidepressants began with isoniazid, which was an anti-tuberculosis medication. This came after finding that the medication had euphoric effects on the patients taking it. The drug had a mood altering side effect which later became the primary effect for depression and was a basis for synthesis of generations of new antidepressants (Indian J Psychiatry, 2011). Antidepressants are psychiatric medications given to patients with depressive disorders to alleviate symptoms (MNT, 2012). Neurotransmitters in the brain can cause changes in mood and behavior, antidepressants can help correct these chemical imbalances. Many psychiatric conditions can be treated with antidepressants including anxiety disorders and dysthymia. According to medicalnewstoday.com, there were 13.3 million people using antidepressants in 1996 by 2010 that number jumped to 23.3 million. The website goes on to say they believe the increase in antidepressant use can be credited to a higher need for mental health treatments, campaigns promoting mental health care being more widespread and mental health treatments becoming more widely accepted. In the years since the antidepressant age came to be many new antidepressants have been made, the Royal College of Psychiatrist say there are at least thirty different kinds of antidepressants, all of which can be divided into five main types.

Glutamate receptors (NMDAR and AMPAR) of the postsynaptic membrane are the initial triggers for LTP induction. NMDARs require the binding of glutamate and the co-agonist glycine, as well as depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, to become activated and permeate Na+, K+ and Ca2+. Most of AMPARs contain GluA2 and permeate Na+ and K+. Glutamate binding to the AMPARs causes a Na+ influx into the postsynaptic neuron. This depolarization leads to Mg2+ block releasing from NMDARs. Glutamate binding and the Mg2+ removal opens NMDARs, Ca2+ and Na+ then flow into the postsynaptic neuron. Through repeated activation of the postsynaptic neuron, sufficient Ca2+ comes in and triggers a series of molecular events required for LTP

Tryptophan supplements increase serotonin levels by providing the essential building blocks of serotonin. Tryptophan has been found to be as effective for depression as antidepressant drugs and is also good for treating a wide variety of mental health conditions including anxiety, ADHD, seasonal affective disorder, eating disorders, and memory loss. Saffron is a well-known culinary spice and works for mild to moderate depression by acting on serotonin metabolism. Saffron is believed to work as an antidepressant due to its many healing properties. Saffron not only increases serotonin but also exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. When taken along with SSRIs, saffron can reduce their side effects. Besides depression, saffron is also useful for treating premenstrual syndrome, sexual dysfunction, and

TCAs, SSRIs, SNRIs, SRMs, MAOIs and Lithium Salts) providing a variable range of options that help in considering patients’ preferences along with overcoming antidepressants tolerance and resistance issues. Nevertheless, despite the availability of more than two dozens different antidepressants, these treatments often yield inadequate results, for instance; up to 70% of patients with MDD (Major Depressive Disorder) do not reach remission with an adequate course of one antidepressant and experience poorer long-term outcomes (Fava 2003).The failures and shortcomings of classical antidepressants are usually rationalized through illustrating the hypothesis of their

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and the tricyclic antidepressant have shown superiority over the benzodiazepines, monoamine-oxidase inhibitor in term of effectiveness and tolerance.

Treatment of depression is still in the process of discovery. Carolyn Gregoire has published new research in the health and wellness page, in which she describes the investigation of Ayahuasca for the treatment of depression. This new hypothesis has been discovered and tested in the University of San Paula, Brazil, also in the process of being studied by Dr. Brian Anderson, a psychiatrist at the University of California, San Francisco. Ayahuasca contains a product called Dimethyltryptamine, which is used as a substitute of the SSRI drugs and therapeutic treatments for

This report will focus on the effects and memory of therapeutic and off label drugs. A study shown by Star*D gives insight to the first exposure to a patient taking antidepressant, that only 28% to 33% will go into complete remission. Total remission of depressive symptoms is now the aim of current modern antidepressant psychopharmacology (Rosse, Richard MD 2007). Research has shown that mostly all the market available antidepressant users are very effective in treating depression. It has been proven to in fact elevate the patient’s mood and help retake interest in everyday life. Aside other frustrations such as poor sleep and concentration and loss of care for sleep this drug has been effective. Antidepressants have also been successfully

NAC shows significant antidepressant-like activity in animal model of depression via its antioxidative properties 1

The linkage of serotonin to depression has been known for the past five years. From numerous studies, the most concrete evidence of this connection is the decreased concentration of serotonin metabolites like 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindole acetic acid) in the cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissues of depressed people. If depression, as suggested, is a result of decreased levels of serotonin in the brain, pharmaceutical agents that can reverse this effect should be helpful in treating depressed patients. Therefore, the primary targets of various antidepressant medications are serotonin transports of the brain. Since serotonin is activated when released by neurons into the synapse, antidepressants function at the synapse to enhance serotonin activity. Normally, serotonin's actions in the synapse are terminated by its being taken back into the neuron then releases it at which point "it is either recycled for reuse as a transmitter or broken down into its metabolic by products and transported out of the brain." As a result, antidepressants work to increase serotonin levels at the synapse by blocking serotonin reuptake (2).

Lidocaine blocks the voltage-gated Na+ channels between R1 and R2, which blocks the propagation of the action potential from R1 to R2. The effect of lidocaine differs

Modern users over the past century have opted crushing the dried leaf into a fine powder and consuming it to obtain the wonderful mind and body edges. Now, first-hand anecdotal reports from kratom users everywhere in the planet highlight to its power and effectiveness in fighting depression. Here are some of the depression-relieving properties being conveyed concerning the kratom experience: