Lipid Simulation

14 mL of 9 M H2SO4 was added to the separatory funnel and the mixture was shaken. The layers were given a small amount of time to separate. The remaining n-butyl alcohol was extracted by the H2SO4 solution therefore, there was only one organic top layer. The lower aqueous layer was drained and discarded. 14 mL of H2O was added to the separatory funnel. A stopper was placed on the separatory funnel and it was shaken while being vented occasionally. The layers separated and the lower layer which contained the n-butyl bromide was drained into a smaller beaker. The aqueous layer was then discarded after ensuring that the correct layer had been saved by completing the "water drop test" (adding a drop of water to the drained liquid and if the water dissolves, it confirms that it is an aqueous layer). The alkyl halide was then returned to the separatory funnel. 14 mL of saturated aqeous sodium bicarbonate was added a little at a time while the separatory funnel was being swirled. A stopper was placed on the funnel and it was shaken for 1 minute while being vented frequently to relieve any pressure that was being produced. The lower alkyl halide layer was drained into a dry Erlenmeyer flask and 1.0 g of anhydrous calcium chloride was added to dry the solution. A stopper was placed on the Erlenmeyer flask and the contents were swirled until the liquid was clear. For the distillation

The distillation that was more efficient at separating the two compounds was the cyclohexane and the p-xylene since the curve of the graph for temperature vs. volume has a slightly better curve (Table 4A). The graph for cyclohexane and toluene was more linear (Table 4B). Furthermore, the mole fraction of cyclohexane and p-xylene was higher than the mole fraction of cyclohexane and toluene. For instance, the mole fraction of cyclohexane and p-xylene (when adding the mole fraction of the first ml and the last couple of drops) was 0.6604 while the mole fraction for cyclohexane and toluene was 0.13396. A higher mole fraction means that the compounds were purer which means that they separated better—since increasing the mole fraction increases the vapor pressure. Therefore, my hypothesis was supported.

Objective: The main goal of this lab is to learn how separation of binary liquid mixtures is performed. Especially when the two liquids have boiling points varying by about 30° C. Hexane can be separated from toluene in this experiment because of the difference in their boiling points. Since toluene has a higher boiling point, it will left at the bottom while the hexane starts to boil out and collect in the Hickman still. GC measurements help us in determining how accurate our data is by making a graph of the amount of hexane and toluene in each fraction. Also this lab gives experience with semi-micro

Simple distillation is more effective when the two components of a mixture have a difference in boiling point that is greater than 50°C. This large difference makes the need for theoretical plates non-existent since there is no need for multiple distillations per fraction. We can collect all necessary data from a simple distillation fraction using a gas chromatograph. The gas chromatograph vaporizes the injected sample and it begins to undergo partitioning. It is pushed into a small heated column that is coated in the liquid form of the sample. The longer the substance stays inside the column before passing over the heated wire, the longer the retention time is. The retention time is utilized to identify the substance, while the number of peaks shows how many substances are present, and the size of the peaks show how much percentage each substance occupies in a sample. The intrinsic properties of isopropyl acetate and toluene allow analysis of the provided data to become quite simple. Isopropyl acetate has a lower boiling point because it has a relatively low dipole moment and only one double bond. Thus, the intermolecular forces are relatively low in isopropyl acetate leading to a low boiling point. Toluene has a higher boiling point because the methyl group, attached to the benzene

The crude product was washed by taking the reaction product in the separatory funnel and adding 23 mL of deionized H2O. The mixture was shaken and allowed to settle until layers were observable. The top layer was the desired product and approximately 25 mL of aqueous layer was extracted from the separatory funnel. Next, 25 mL of 5% NaHCO3 was added to the separatory funnel in order to neutralize the acid. This mixture was swirled, plugged with the stopper and inverted. Built-up gas was released by turning the stopcock to its opened and closed positions, releasing CO2 by-product. This was done four times in one minute intervals. The solution was allowed to settle until layers were observable. The bottom layer that contained salt, base and water was extracted from the separatory funnel. The crude product was washed again as mentioned previously.

The purpose of doing this experiment is to separate a sample of cyclohexane and toluene using simple miniscale distillation. The objectives will be to record boiling range and volumes (mL) of distillates that are acquired during the distillation process. It is expected that cyclohexane boils and distils before toluene. By gathering these measurements will allow us to determine refractive index of fractions collected. An Abbe refractometer will be used to accomplish this.

Alterations: After mixing the benzoic acid, p- dichlorobenzene, and m- nitroaniline with the diethyl ether inside the separatory funnel it resulted a yellowish color with a strong odor that makes you dizzy. Preparing an hydrochloric acid solution and mixing it with the mixture of diethyl ether and there three compound creates a layer in the separatory funnel. Shaking it and releasing the gas to mix the compound very well, but too much shake trap the bubbles in the center layer that separate the organic layer and aqeuous layer. It will take time to disappear the bubbles, so by shaking it slowly will avoid the forming of bubbles. The aqeuous layer formed a very light- yellow color and a “gello” like material and settled in the bottom of the separatory funnel, while the organic layer remain in the top. Draining the bottom which is the aqeuous layer and saving it later for the extraction of benzoic acid. Adding hydrochloric acid gave us a crystal white color in appearance with a purple color of litmus paper and ph level of 0.3, indicating an acidic solution and allowing it to precipitate. Pre- weighing the filter paper resulted a 0.31 g and after vacuum filtration and allowing it to dry, the filter paper with the compound weigh

Comparisons of interaction networks in our database revealed differences between the network structures of relatively solitary, fission-fusion, social and socially hierarchical species. Do these differences in network measures also influence the disease costs of social organization? To answer this question, we performed SIR disease simulations through the social networks in our database. Three measures relevant to disease management were used to summarize the simulations: (a) Proportion of individuals infected in the network (outbreak size), that estimates the total burden of mortality (or morbidity), (b) the duration of disease spread (outbreak duration), which estimates how quickly infection spreads through the networks and therefore time duration within which disease control/management interventions have to be employed, and (c) epidemic

igure 1.2 gives the Txy diagram for the benzene/toluene system at a pressure of 1 atm. The abscissa is the mole fraction of benzene. The ordinate is temperature. The lower curve is the “saturated liquid” line that gives the mole fraction of benzene in the liquid phase x. The upper curve is the “saturated vapor” line that gives the mole fraction of benzene in the vapor phase y. Drawing a horizontal line at some temperature and reading off the intersection of this line with the two curves give the compositions of the two phases.

The present findings showed that the daily oral administration of AlCl3 induced a significant increase in the levels of cortical, hippocampal and striatal lipid peroxidation marker MDA recording +55.20%, +128.32% and +427.39%, respectively above the control values. In addition, NO level increased significantly by +100%, +72.22% and +57.14%, in the cortex, hippocampus and striatum respectively of AlCl3-treated rats. Protection of AlCl3-intoxicated rats with caffeine attenuated the increased values of MDA and NO in the studied brain regions to non significant changes from the control (Figure 1).

The Lipid Bilayer is a membrane that contains protein. The lipid bilayer is a part of all cell membrane. The structural parts provide support that marks the boundaries of the cells. It is called a lipid bilayer because it has two layers of fat cells put in order on two sheets.

In 1960, renowned biologists Gorter and Grendel made a scientific breakthrough with their formulation of the phospholipid bilayer model, commonly referred to as the ‘fluid mosaic model’. Fifty years later, this structure remains the most valued proposed explanation of the composition of the surface membrane, and is highly regarded throughout the scientific community. Consequently, the general structure of the cell surface membrane is, at this point, considered highly understood. Cell surface membranes are thought to consist largely of amphipathic molecules (Fleischer et al, 1978) held together by weaker hydrophobic interactions and components of the membrane such as cholesterol. The term ‘amphipathic’ refers to molecules comprised of two

PURPOSE: The purpose of this procedure is to prevent errors, establish a procedure describing the activities and requirements for accomplishing returned liquid / blend control and supply the lines with correct blends / liquid.

The selectivity of cumene is improved at low temperature and high benzene concentration. At low temperature, the reactor size and cost escalate. However, capital and operating cost for heater can be reduced since the second distillation column is not

Lipid based delivery systems which are composed of both liposomes and emulsions are called biphasic systems. Biphasic vesicle systems provide several advantages as a topical carrier system such as have multichamber structure allow encapsulation and co-encapsulation of various therapeutics of different weight range with different solubilities. Biphasic systems are evaluated for many vaccine candidates including proteins, nucleotides, recombinant subunits and classical old inactivated or killed vaccines and now became applicable to purposes in human as well as in animals [150,148,149]. Baca-Estrada et al., [150] has shown topical delivery of hen egg lysozyme (HEL) and leukotoxin antigens in biphasic delivery system induce strong Th-2 cellular response and induce secretion of IgG1 antibody response. Foldveri et al., [151] formulated biphasic delivery system of plasmid DNA (pDNA) and shown that it delivered significant quantities of pDNA into the viable layers of human skin in vitro and induce 5 times higher anti-IgD levels compared with naked DNA alone and secrete IL-4 by cells and induce cellular immune response. Babiuk et al., [152] demonstrated that topical delivery of plasmid in biphasic lipid delivery system results to induce cellular and humoral response. Transcutaneous immunization induces Th-2 whereas intradermal administration induces Th-1 type cellular immune response.