Live Birth Research Paper

24) Prior to the onset of lactation, the mammary glands are prepared for the production of milk by

After embryo development, endosperm is growth to store nutrients. This happens after double fertilization, when the triploid nucleus of the ovule’s central cell divides. This causes the formation of a milky multinucleate “supercell”. This becomes multicellular after cytokinesis. Finally, when the cell walls are completed, the endosperm becomes solid.

Compare and contrast the three reproductive strategies of vertebrates. Vertebrates have three reproductive strategies. The first is an ovipary which refers to the development of an egg outside the mother's body. The next is an ovovivipary refers to the development of an egg inside the mother’s body. The next is the vivipary which refers to birth and not having an egg inside or outside the mother’s

The fetal circulatory route is connected to the mother’s circulatory system. The mother does the work that the baby’s lungs will do after birth. Blood enters through the placenta, picking up oxygen before returning to the fetus. It returns to the fetus through the umbilical vein. The core concept behind fetal circulation is that fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin, which allows a diffusion of oxygen from the mother’s circulatory system to the fetus. The mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. The uterine arteries carry blood to the

When people look at humans, we do not necessarily compare ourselves with reptiles, but in reality, we are almost identical when we are in the womb. In early development, humans have a yolk sac, which was used for our ancestors, the reptiles, to lay their eggs. We are also given an amnion which cushions the embryo. The amnion

The growth of a fetus is directly related to the nutrients and oxygen given by the mother. However, a mother’s diet in pregnancy alone has little effect on the baby’s birth size but does significantly impact the child’s life. The mother’s ability to nourish her baby is created during her own fetal life and is impacted by her nutrition in childhood. The fetal supply line is what affects the baby’s growth.

Fetus is an unborn offspring of a mammal, but in this case its an unborn human baby more than eight weeks after conception. The fetal stage of development is taken as beginning at the gestational age of eleven weeks, nine weeks after fertilization. The term “fetus” implies that an embryo has developed to the point of being recognizable as a human being. The fetus is about 30 millimeter in length from crown to rump, and weighs about 8 grams. This point is usually taken to the ninth week after fertilization. A fetus is also identified by the existence of all the major body organs, they will not yet be fully matured and functional and

Determining where after pregnancy changes into before pregnancy is easily debatable as pregnancy is part of the reproduction cycle, and in the most basic of terms a cycle is a recurring series of events that do not have a beginning or end. For the purposes in this paper, we will assume that before pregnancy is the time in after healing and before conception excluding the nursing of the newborn calf. During this period, a cow is cycling through her estrus cycle and performing basic

When preparing for delivery, I assume pregnant women are usually excited, anxious and ready to bring a new life into the world. After labor and delivery, most women want to make sure their child is healthy and are ready to obtain some rest. The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus that provides nourishment to the child and is the only organ that is shared between 2 people. Afterward, the placenta is sent for testing, thrown away or will be incinerated depending on the hospital’s policy. It is not considered natural to keep the placenta after delivery, even though the majority of non-human mammals eat their placenta for after birth benefits. placentophagy is the practice of ingesting the placenta. This practice is widely accepted in Traditional Chinese Medicine and has been documented as early as 1578.There are multiple ways of ingesting the placenta including raw, cooking it and pill capsulation. Just like any meat, the placenta has to

mesoderm, amnion, allantois, and the yolk sac blood islands at around E7.5 (Lee et al.,

Throughout this discovery process there have been many questions that have guided the scientific community towards finding answers. One of the earlier questions was “how does the embryo take form and differentiate to become an organised organism?”

Lactation, as well as the mammary glands by which mothers provide their young with milk, have long been regarded as an exclusive and defining trait of the vertebrate class Mammalia. In fact, Linnaeus himself outfitted our own phylogenetic class with this name because they possess mammae (Gregory 1910). How such complex methods of delivering nourishment to young evolved in the first place has always been a hotly contested topic. Breasts, teats, and nipples are all soft tissue, so they cannot be directly observed in the fossil record. What original structures evolved into mammary glands? Did all mammals have them? Is it possible that our reptilian ancestors (or rather, our common ancestor with modern reptiles) also lactated? This paper examines the work of paleontologists, evolutionary biologists, and geneticists of the last 120 years to try to gain some insight into these questions, and whether they can ever be truly answered.

Fetal development during pregnancy is predominantly related to the placenta and its function in fetal-maternal exchange (Ishikawa et al. 2006). Alterations in the interactions between the fetus and maternal uterine environment thus permit for the modification in fetal growth. In addition, the placenta also acts as an endocrine organ that produces hormones necessary for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy as well as fetal growth and wellbeing (Malassine, Frendo & Evain-Brion 2003). Literature suggests fetal growth relies on the mobilisation of maternal nutrients, which involves placental growth hormone and that dysregulation of the hormone may have an adverse impact on fetal growth (Newbern & Freemark 2011). The placenta consists of two distinct regions, which are the junctional (JZ) and labyrinth (LZ) zones that differ in morphological and functional terms (Ishikawa et al. 2006). This complexity therefore reflects the placenta as a highly specialised unit required for the exchange of gases, nutrients and waste products between mother and fetus as alluded to earlier. The interrelationship between the fetus and placenta has been made

375 million years ago, a fish-like creature crawled onto the land. This transition into an existence on dry terrain gave rise to amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and finally to humans. As early reptiles colonized in adverse new environments, they adapted features to help them survive during their struggles for food and territory. Our reptilian ancestors were changing their bodies and these new features are evident in our human bodies today. One of these features that link us to our reptilian ancestors is the yolk sac which is evident in the human embryo as well as the eggs of reptiles. As reptiles adapted to life on a dry earth, they needed to keep their eggs from drying out an so evolved a new type of egg which enclosed the embryos in an amnion filled sac and covered it with a hard shell. Reptiles and humans both carry the yolk gene but it is no longer functional in humans as we evolved and no longer needed yolk to feed our embryos. But those broken yolk genes are still in our genome and link us to these ancient egg laying animals.

This article focus on the normal variations in the placental developmental process to the differences in nutrition supply to foetus, which fixes a few key systems, relates to developing diseases in later life. Certain variations in placentation processes, influence the nutrient delivery to foetus and develops a range of chronic disorders in the adult. However, further studies need to link the placental process to placental morphology at birth, and the nutrient flow, timing which causes disease in later life. When placenta enlarges to compensate foetal malnutrition, high ratios of placental weight to birth weight is found. Compensatory growth of placenta may be favourable, but if it’s inadequate then its turn the foetus to face the metabolic burden. Tissue along the breadth is important to transfer nutrients and growth failure along breath and short length of the placental surface are associated with diseases in later life. Length of placental surface is linked to rostrocaudal growth of foetus. Different placental phenotype, like large, small, and oval surfaces results from compensatory placental expansion, inadequate growth of chorionic, and low amino acid transfer was associated with coronary heart disease. Placentas with a number of cotyledons have more demand for nutrient and this stress cause variation in nervous systems and increase the vascular tone. If this tone persists after birth can lead to increase blood pressure. When umbilical artery twist around the vein,