Macromolecular Damage

With all living organisms, a process known as cell respiration is integral in order to provide the body with an essential form of energy, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Oxygen, although an essential part of this process, can form reactants from colliding with electrons associated with carrier molecules. (pb101.rcsb.org, 2017). Hydrogen peroxide is an integral product of this reaction but is known to impose negative effects on the body if high levels are introduced. Explicitly, this reaction is caused “If oxygen runs into (one of these) carrier molecules, the electron may be accidentally transferred to it. This converts oxygen into dangerous compounds such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide, which can attack the delicate sulphur atoms and metal ions in proteins.” (pdbh101.rcb.org, 2017). Research has suggested that the hydrogen peroxide can be converted into hydroxyl radicals, known to mutate DNA, which can potentially cause bodily harm due to DNA’s role in the synthesis of proteins. These radicals can cause detrimental effects on the human body, and studies have suggested a link to ageing. Due to the harmful effects of these H2o2, it is important that the body finds a way to dispose of hydrogen peroxide before concentrations are too great.

Main compounds of the enzymatic antioxidant system are three, namely, SOD, CAT and tT which have an important role in detoxifying of H2O2 and superoxide anion in cells. Ample of hepatotoxic drugs induces the liver damage by lipid peroxidation indirectly or directly. The proxy radicals are main factors that mediate lipid peroxidation leading to liver injury and kidney damage(41). MDA as a main reactive aldehyde appears during polyunsaturated fatty acid peroxidation in the biological

When we’re young, our cells have a very strong defense system known as superoxide dismutase (SOD) that kicks free radical butt. But as we get older, SOD doesn’t work as well. Without SOD keeping the peace, the free radicals have a field day and wreak as much damage as they possibly can causing our cells, and eventually us, to die. Free radicals have also been linked to a number of diseases such as cancer, dementia and heart disease.

These superoxides may be dangerous because they alter the structure of iron and protein via reduction. They may also undergo dismutation to form hydrogen peroxide which, in turn, gives rise to hydroxyl radicals, the most reactive ROS (Gulumian and Van Wyk, 1987; Agarwal et al., 2005). Hydrogen peroxide is not a free radical but its neutral charge allows it to pass through cell membranes and so this makes it very dangerous (Kurutas, 2015). Other internal or endogenous sources for these free radicals are inflammation, xanthine oxidase, peroxisomes, phagocytosis, exercise and ischaemia. Exogenous factors which lead to the development of these ROS include smoking, ozone, environmental pollutants, radiation, pesticides and drugs (Lobo et al.,

Your body is in a constant battle against infection, diseases and the formation of free radicals. However, there's a secret weapon that can help you fight against these things: antioxidants! Antioxidants are elements such as vitamins A, C and E that counteract the damage caused by free radicals and help protect your healthy cells. Free radicals are the molecules that contain unpaired electrons, which make them highly reactive. In this form, they can cause damage by attacking healthy cells, and when these cells grow weakened, you become more vulnerable to disease.

oxidant production by pulmonary phagocytes overwhelms the antioxidant defenses and leads to lipid peroxidation, protein nitrosation, cell injury and lung scarring “(Khan, 2015).

In the course of evolution man has lost his ability to produce some powerful antioxidants such as beta carotene and vitamin C in your body. Are preserved, however, other antioxidants (Eg melatonin) That inactivate free radicals and thus form a powerful defense system against them.

Aging and senescence, which is the decline in the physical functioning or performance of living organisms with age (Bergstrom, 2012), is also is studied using an evolutionary perspective. Research on aging has shown that it is a life trait that has been shaped over the years by natural selection (Neese, 2008). Aging is a process that occurs due to an accumulation of molecular damage that

Oxidation factors such as smoking cigarettes or bacterial infection can split apart molecules held by weak bonds, resulting in an unstable molecule with unpaired electron known as free radical.35 These free radicals start attacking the healthy nearby cells and attempt to replace their missing electron. When an attacked molecule loses its electron, it becomes a free radical itself. The damaged cell can release free radicals and continue the effects of oxidative stress to surrounding cells. The resulting oxidative stress can damage the endothelial cell wall by lipid peroxidation. Reactive oxidative species attack the cell membrane composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids by initiating the self-propagating chain reaction. Destruction of the cell membrane causes the osmotic disequilibrium that imbalances the entry/exit pathway of water molecules, proteins, enzymes, and other nutrients inside the cell. This further leads to cross-linking of proteins which disrupts extracellular signaling molecules to recognize their target proteins and utilize them for fulfilling specific functions in the body. Lipid peroxidation

Module ten discussed oxidative stress, and the causes, as well as consequences of liver disorders. Oxidative stress occurs when there is an abnormal balance between nonspecific oxidation reactions, and the body's ability to counteract them. A nonspecific oxidation reaction refers to one that involves free radicals reacting in a disorderly fashion with other molecules. Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that can cause cellular damage, targeting that of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Free radicals within the body can lead to fragmentation of proteins causing them to have an abnormal function, oxidize polysaturated lipids at their double bond causing disruption in the membrane function, and cause mutations in DNA. Antioxidants react directly with free radicals in the body to render them inactive. Some antioxidant

Excessively high levels of free radicals cause damage to vital cellular components such as proteins, membrane lipids, and nucleic acids, and finally lead to cell death (Maritim, Sanders & Watkins 2003).

Antioxidants are molecules that find and destroy the free radicals floating in the bloodstream man. Free radicals are the main culprit for man is aging rapidly, destroying brain cells.

Ageing affects majority part of the body systems including cells, organs and tissues. It is characterised by the gradual loss of function and eventually affects the whole organism. Many studies on simple model organisms on genetic and molecular biology, many genes and pathways involved in longevity have been identified, helping to depict the molecular scenario of ageing.

Anti-oxidants are substances capable to mop up free radicals and prevent them from causing cell damage. Free radicals are responsible for causing a wide number of health problems which include cancer, aging, heart diseases, gastric problems etc. A free radical is an atom or molecule with a single unpaired electron. Examples: Nitric oxide (.NO), superoxide (O2.-) hydroxyl radical (.OH), lipid peroxy radical (LOO.). Although, molecular oxygen (O2) has two unpaired electrons in two different orbitals, it is not a free radical (23). After donating an electron, an antioxidant becomes a free radical by definition. In this state, antioxidants are not harmful because they have the ability to accommodate the change in electrons without becoming reactive

When your diet lacks the vitamins needed for healthy cell rejuvenation, it will produce high amounts of free radicals, or highly reactive oxygen molecules. Free radicals will attack your healthy cells, thus, accelerating the aging process. Foods high in fat content, pesticides and ultraviolet radiation exposure can also