Macrophages And Osteoclasts

The bone is made up of combined bones, bone marrow. Bone marrow is found in the middle of the main bone and it has blood vessles.There is two types of bone marrow are the red and the yellow. This type of cancer my effect the red blood cells, white blood cells, and

Osteoclasts are bone-absorbing cells that breakdown bone and assist in depositing calcium and phosphate in the blood.

Imagine if every time your knee was sore, or your arm was sore, you had to go see the doctors. This commonly happens to children, and adults who are diagnosed with Osteosarcoma. Since Osteosarcoma is a bone tumor/cancer, the symptoms and treatment have an impact on everyday life.

Rare and currently incurable multiple myeloma accounts for roughly 1% of overall cancers and 13% of hematological cancers (Palumbo & Anderson, 2011). This form of cancer involves the infiltration of malignant plasma cells into the bone marrow. The median age of diagnosed individuals equals roughly 70 years of age (2011). Multiple myeloma progression results in the deactivation of bone synthesizing osteoblasts and the activation of bone disassembling osteoclasts that cause osteolytic lesions that present as bone pain, fractures, and hypercalcemia (2011). In healthy human bone marrow, plasma cells usually comprise <5.5mg/mL showed a median survival of 44 months (2015). With current treatment

Osteosarcoma, deriving form primitive bone-forming mesenchymal cells, is the most common primary bone malignancy[1]. The incidence rates of osteosarcoma has a bimodal age distribution. It typically occurs during adolescence and has the second peak in older adulthood[2]. There is variability in location between age groups, but usually the osteosarcoma occurs most frequently in long bones. The etiology of osteosarcoma is currently being studied but still not well understood[3]. Several studies showed that age, gender and height are risk factors for osteosarcoma[4]. The overall survival (OS) of osteosarcoma has been improved significantly because of effective chemotherapy combination[5]. Studies showed that complete surgical resection with addition of chemotherapy has increased the 5-year OS to approximately 70%[5], but improvements in osteosarcoma survival during the last decade have been limited[6].

To begin with, osteopontin (OPN) is a non-collagenous phosphoprotein bone matrix, a homogenous substance in which the cells and fibres of connective tissue are embedded, which is present in numerous cells which includes, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells. OPN is a negatively-charged acidic hydrophilic protein, a protein that has a strong affinity for water, and consists of an approximate number of 300 amino acid remains and can be secreted into all of the fluids in the body. The OPN cDNA from numerous mammalian species, an organism which is classified in the class of mammalia, emits a large degree of homologous

Bone cancer is defined as the uncontrolled growth of bone cells. The first recognizable symptoms are pain and tenderness in the bone. Other common signs include decreased mobility of a joint, fatigue, as well as anemia. Bone tumors are a clear indicator of bone cancer, however, they often go unnoticed until significant pain or injury has been acquired as a result. Apart from tumors, the symptoms of bone cancer are indecisive and can pertain to a number of medical conditions. This condition cannot be self-diagnosed, but only determined through further inspection by a doctor. (Viswanatha, 2011).

4. Pre-osteoblasts are recruited by cytokines: transforming growth factor beta, insulin growth-like factors, fibroblast growth factors and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) (Hock et al, 2004). The actions of BMPs cause pre-osteoblasts to differentiate into osteoblasts (Monolagas, 2000). Osteoblasts then secrete bone matrix proteins: type-I collagen, osteocalcin, proteoglycans, growth factors and glycoproteins into the resorption pits (Nair et al, 1996). Approximately 50% of osteoblasts then undergo apoptosis and the remaining become embedded osteocytes or bone lining cells.

The skeletal system supports the body shape and helps in movement. Skeletons are a dynamic tissue, constantly rebuild and reabsorb throughout lifetime (Karsenty and Wagner, 2002). Bone formation (osteogenesis), growth and remodeling are highly dependent on new blood vessel formations (angiogenesis) (Brandi and Collin-Osdoby, 2006). Notably, angiogenesis plays a major role in fracture healing and repair. Moreover imbalance of the vasculature leads to progression of numerous bone diseases (osteoporosis, osteonecrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, bone cancer and metastasis)(Carulli et al., 2013). In angiogenesis, avascular region of the tissue is hypoxic and secretes angiogenic factors to induce the new blood vessel formation form existing ones (Potente et al., 2011). The inner layer of blood vessel is covered by endothelial cells (ECs) and shielded by perivascular cells (pericytes and smooth muscle cells) and outer layer is directly connected to the vascular beads (Carmeliet and Jain, 2011). Further, the vessel formation, architecture and function are varying in organ specific manner (Rocha and Adams, 2009). Signal from perivascular

The Macrophage cell is a part of the Immune system (the immune system protect your body from virus, bacteria and pathogens) The word microphage actually means big eater. The job of the Macrophage is to inform other cell in the immune system (mainly the natural killer cells) that there is virus and bacteria or pathogen, then the immune system will come to kill the bacteria or virus. Macrophages will join the fight against foreign bodies by digesting enemies by process called Phagocytosis. It is broken down into a couple of steps:

Contradictory functions of osteopontin may be associated with Th1 and Th2 response and infiltration of inflammatory cells including different phenotypes of macrophages. In addition, since different forms of osteopontin in various tissues interact with distinct cell surface receptors and ECM proteins, osteopontin expressed by dissimilar cells or tissues may function differently. Therefore, identification of essential cellular sources of osteopontin in injured muscle and its’ influence on Th1 and Th2 responses is important.

According to 2008-2012 data, the rate of new cases of bone cancer was 0.9 per 100,000 men and women every year while the rate of deaths was 0.4 per 100,000 men and women every year. Based on 2010-2012 data, only about 0.1 percent of men and women will be diagnosed with bone cancer during their whole life. About 66.7% of people survive 5 Years or more after being diagnosed with bone cancer based on data from 2005-2011. According to a research on risk of bone cancer after childhood cancer, “The percentage of 3-year survivors developing bone cancer within 20 years did not exceed 0.9%, except following heritable retinoblastoma (7.2%), Ewing's sarcoma (5.4%), and other malignant bone tumors (2.4%).”(Michael M. et al,

Leukemia is the dieases that associated with the blood-forming system. The cancer cells in the bone morrow lead to the over-production of the abmormal white bollds cells. These white blood cells are usually immature, the exeact causes of this desease is still unknown, but it is believed that the genetic factors and the environment factors plays a key role.

Osteoblastogenesis takes place as a result of a number of signalling pathways such as the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Wnt/β-catenin and mitrogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling. The TGF-β superfamily comprises of the TGF-βs and the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), both of which play critical regulatory roles in bone tissue55,56. TGF-β presents in 3 isoforms namely TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 with TGF-β1 in particular having a chemotactic effect on osteoblasts in order to promote bone formation55. TGF-β is initially expressed as an inactive complex which is made functional via one of three mechanisms: bond breaking between TGF-β and the latency associated peptide, degradation of the latency associated peptide or conformational change of the latency associated peptide itself55. Post-activation, the TGF-β binds to either type I or type II of the transmembrane serine/threonine receptors57.

The human immune system is a complex network of cells and organs that evolved to fight off infectious microbes. Much of the immune system’s work is carried out by an army of various specialized cells, each type designed to fight disease in a particular way. The invading microbes first run into the vanguard of this army, which includes white blood cells called macrophages (literally, "big eaters"). The macrophages engulf as many of the microbes as they can. ANTIGENS SOUND THE ALARM How do the macrophages recognize the microbes? All cells and microbes wear a "uniform" made up of molecules that cover their surfaces. Each human cell displays unique marker molecules unique to you. Microbes display different marker molecules unique to them. The macrophages