Macrophages

According to the article by Medicine Net, cytotoxic cells kill infected diseases by first recognizing foreign viruses and then secreting a protein that attracts macrophages, a type of white blood cell, that then surround and attack the infected cells. The role of T helper cells within the body is to simply recognize foreign antigens and secrete cytokines which activates T and B cells.

The human immune system creates a series of responses in the body to defend the body. If a foreign organism, such as a virus or a cold invades your body, it recognizes these foreign organisms, and, in turn, attacks them to get rid of them. One can think of the immune system as an army of many cells which have set up their own bastion in the human body. They have only one job: To defend. The immune system’s cells are various kinds of white blood cells. The human body typically creates about 1000 million white blood cells on a daily basis. A group of these cells, macrophages, establish a patrol of sorts throughout the body killing germs as soon as they enter the body. However, sometimes an infection can cause the macrophages to succumb to it. The body begins to fight back with stronger T- and B-cells.

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental condition that has unclear etiology. Current research indicates that the condition is caused by numerous causes, including genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Genetics is indicated as the etiology for many individuals who develop the condition. However more research is indicated in order to understand how environmental factors contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Specifically, how factors such as infection influence the developing brain and whether or not an individual’s immune response adversely affects neurodevelopment.

This intracellular bacterial pathogen has strategically developed a way to avoid detection and prolong its detrimental effects on the host. It avoids going into the extracellular space by spreading directly from one macrophage to the next in using “actin rockets.” L. monocytogenes replicates in the macrophage cytosol. This type of infection would elicit an adaptive Type 1 immune response. However, first, the innate system combats L. monocytogenes by macrophages that continue to engulf this pathogen. In response, the macrophages secrete TNF-alpha and IL-12. NK cells are driven to the area of infection by these cytokines. Moreover, NK cells secrete IFN-gamma, which leads to activation of the macrophages, and this increases macrophages’ ability to kill

Macrophages and osteoclasts are cells that form from a common myeloid lineage. Because of this common lineage, both cell types share similar properties that can lead to tumorigenesis and metastasis of cancer cells.

Macrophage secretes growth factors that are signals to the fibroblasts to synthesize and secrete collagen.

In the initial phase of an infection, the innate immune system generates a rapid inflammatory

CVD [27]. In this response, macrophages play an important role, through the production of proinflammatory

The complement protein C3 binds to the cell wall and increases the recognition of Mycobacterium by macrophages. After macrophages have been absorbed, Mycobacterium proliferates slowly through bacterial cell division, which occurs every 25 to 32 hours. Macrophages release proteolytic enzymes and cytokines to break down the bacteria. Macrophages then present Mycobacterium antigens on the surface of T cells. This initiates an immune response that lasts for 2 to 12 weeks; the microorganisms continue to grow until they form enough numbers to fully induce the cell-mediated immune

The macrophage is one of the white cells. From the white blood cell called monocytes, the macrophages are produced. It is a cell responsible for engulfing, digesting a cellular debris and is able to locate the foreign substances and cancer cells. In order to get rid of the unwanted invaders the phagocytosis destroys and cleans the body. The macrophage is aware of which cell is to keep and which do not belong to the body.

They are a type of a granulocyte white blood cells. Neutrophils are number one in abundance of all white blood cell types and are very quick in arriving at microbial infection site. Neutrophils are very effective in fighting bacterial and fungal infections. Neutrophils are phagocytes by nature and they kill microbes by ingesting it. They can also kill microbes externally by granulation which is a release of anti-microbial microbes. Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) is also the other method that neutrophils use to prevent microbes from causing a damage to our body. Neutrophils are not Antigen Presenting

Mitochondrial respiration is the final process of metabolic reactions to generate biological energy (ATP) along with glycolysis and Krebs cycle. Mitochondrial respiration is critical not only host immune cells to limit the IVI but also influenza virus to replicate the genes for survival by exploiting energy source. Interestingly, influenza virus leads hypoactive mitochondrial respiration in epithelial cells but causes hyperactive mitochondrial respiration in immune cells, especially macrophages, so that stimulates the generation of ROS and antiviral signaling pathways. Thus, regulation of mitochondrial respiration in alveolar macrophages can be a potential target of IVI. Recent evidences suggested that miRNAs can modulate mitochondrial respiration

It is mainly the neutrophils and tissue macrophages that attack and destroy invading bacteria, viruses, and other injurious agents. The neutrophils are mature cells that can attack and destroy bacteria even in the circulating blood. Conversely, the tissue macrophages begin life as blood monocytes, which are immature cells while still in the blood and have little ability to fight infectious agents at that time.

The macrophages also produce other inflammatory signalling proteins and nitric oxide, which damage the lining of blood vessels, causing them to leak and sometimes burst. The content leaks out, and the damage and presence of the virus particles activates

The first step is chemotaxis. This draws phagocytes to the place of damage by a chemical movement. These chemicals that draw the phagocytes can come from the pathogens, white blood cells, or damaged tissue cells. The second step is adherence. This is the attachment of the phagocyte to the foreign substance. The third step then ingests the foreign substance with hand like psuedopods that engulf it. It does this by fusing together the psuedopods and surrounding the organism with a sac called the phagosome. This is like a vesicle that contains the foreign particle that needs to get rid of. Afterwards digestion occurs; the phagosome then enters the cytoplasm and combines with lysosomes.