Maternal Depression in Women and Its Effect on the Family

Depression is a common mental disorder, characterized by sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, feelings of tiredness, and poor concentration. Depression can be long-lasting or recurrent, substantially impairing an individual’s ability to function at work or school or cope with daily

During the last two decades, researchers have intensified their efforts to expand the findings about paternal perinatal depression. The study conducted by Goodman in 2004, has shown that the postpartum depression’s prevalence among fathers varied from 1.2% to 25% in the population sample. Furthermore, these percentages rose to achieve 24 to 50 per cent when the paternal postpartum depression was associated with maternal postpartum depression. The literature review and studies asserted the detrimental consequences of paternal perinatal depression on child wellbeing and development (Children, C. on D., Parenting Practices, and the Heaslthy Development of, Medicine, I. of, Education, D. of B. and S. S. and, & Council, N. R., 2009) such as hyperactivity, emotional deregulations, behavioral problems (Davis, Davis, Freed, & Clark, 2011, van den Berg et al., 2009). These studies outlined the importance of prevention and intervention to foster the paternal perinatal depression issue, through developing screening, diagnosis and management guidelines.

Second, children-parent attachment is very important to children development. According to Barnes (2006), “studies show a link between maternal depression and a new mother’s state of mind with respect to attachment”. Poor maternal-infant attachment is directly related to poor child development. Maternal-infant attachment enhances infant outcome (Barnes, 2006). Breastfeeding is one aspect of maternal-infant attachment that directly compliments children development. Infants that are not breast fed will not benefit from the more nutritious and anti-bodies rich breast milk. In retrospect, this may still be discussed under child development. However, poor maternal-infant attachment posed other health issues worth discussing separately. Being a mother is often very overwhelming to many women. Negligent parenting may result if there is no attachment between the parent and infant. Negligence poses increase health risk for the child as mentioned in the first paragraph. In addition, depressed women may respond to their infants with increased withdrawal and hostility making the child at risk for child abuse (Barnes, 2006). Consequently, child abuse may cause trauma that may affect the child’s lifelong psychological and cognitive health. Poor maternal-infant

Depression is a major public health problem that is twice as common in women as men during the childbearing years. Postpartum depression is defined as an episode of non-psychotic depression according to standardized diagnostic criteria with onset within 1 year of childbirth (Stewart D., et. al, 2003, p. 4). For women aged 15 to 44 years around the world, Postpartum Depression is second to HIV/AIDS, in terms of total disability (World Health Organization, 2001). Depression has a profound impact on parameters of interpersonal behavior. Post-Partum depression

The birth of a child is thought to be one of the happiest events that can occur in a family (Lowdermilk, Perry, Cashion, & Alden, 2016). Yet, for some the period after childbirth becomes a struggle to survive (Kaakinen, Coehlo, Steele, Tabacco, & Hansen, 2015). It is estimated that 15% of new mothers develop postpartum depression (PPD) (Lowdermilk, 2016). Most feel that PPD only affects the mother. As a result, the consequences to the family have largely been overlooked (Kaakinen et al., 2015). Therefore this paper will explore the effects that postpartum depression (PPD) has on the family and how nursing can promote strategies to improve family health by utilizing the family systems theory.

Over the course of my research paper I will be examining the different aspects of postpartum depression and how it affects their child’s developmental stages. This paper will explain how maternal depression could do harm to a child and if there are treatments available. In my paper I will explain the methods I will be using, information I found in my research, developmental theories, and my opinion on this subject and a conclusion to finish up this paper. In the first section of my paper I will explain what methods I have used to gather my information next I will conclude my research findings this section will include definitions, the stages, how it affects developmental and treatments available, moving on with my paper I

About 8 to 15 percent of childbearing women experience post partum depression during the first year after childbirth, and poor depressed women experience depressive symptoms as high as 48% (Onunaku, 2005). Thirty-seven percent of low-income mothers with young children who have had a major depressive disorder do not receive any treatment, compared to twenty-five percent of their higher-income counterparts (Saxton, 2016). Maternal mental health affects their ability to care for themselves and nurture their children. Untreated mother’s depression adversely affects a child’s brain and socio-emotional development, academic achievement, and child’s long-term success. Living with a depressed mother shape the development of a child’s stress biology, leading to the child’s own risk of developing depression and other emotional disorders (Center On The Developing Child At Harvard

The dire fact is that many moms-to-be suffer from depression and this can be very detrimental to both their health as well as the health of their baby. According to the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention (2016), 1 in 10 women between the ages of 18-44 suffered from a major bout of depression in the past year and 1 in 8 women suffer from postpartum depression once their baby is delivered. Furthermore, researchers (Marcus, Heringhausena, 2009) published a study in the Primary Care journal noting that one in five women will experience at least one depressive disorder during their lifetime and sadly, 10-16% of all pregnant women fulfill the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. This problem is more widespread than you may have initially believed.

Traditionally it has been thought that the mother’s hormones during pregnancy were sufficient to “protect women from becoming depressed” and that the expectant mother “is happy because she is forming a new life” (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2012). Recent studies have shown that a significant percentage of pregnant women are the exception to this rule. Some signs to look for in expectant mothers are: depressed mood, crying for no apparent reason, restlessness, changes in sleep or appetite, withdrawing from their partner or other family members, and thoughts of self-harm. Risk factors for antenatal depression include socioeconomic factors such as low or no social supports, maternal age (the younger the mother, the more likely she is to experience depression while

Maternal depression is a comprehensive term for a range of depressive conditions affecting postpartum and pregnant women (“Identifying and Treating,” 2010). Earlier this year, a group of researchers studied the effect that maternal depression has on the body, focusing on changes in DNA methylation in maternal T-lymphocytes of cord blood and adult hippocampi. DNA methylation is an epigenetic mechanism where methyl groups are added at CpG sites. Scientists are continuously identifying new effects that the disorder has on the human body, thus making it scientifically relevant to the realm of psychobiology. 10 to 20% of mothers will be diagnosed with maternal depression during their lifetimes (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard

Wojcicki et al. (2015) also focuses on a sample of low-income Latino mothers and children by examining the genetic impacts on Latino preschool children, who have been exposed to maternal depression. Utilizing genomic DNA samples from 108 four-year-old children and 92 five-year-old children and their mothers, Wojcicki et al. (2015) examines the telomere length within these children. Shorter telomere length has been linked to health conditions, such as cancer, diabetes, and obesity in adults, so determining early-life risk factors can improve the health trajectories of many children (Wojcicki et al., 2015). The purpose of the study is to determine the effects that exposure to maternal depression has on telomere length in children as well as

Not only is depression linked to genes, but a recent population based study suggests that a child will be affected even more directly if a mother’s mental health is altered during pregnancy. Teens and adults of mothers

According to the ANMI News, research from beyond blues, about a third of women aged 14-24 reported that they experienced depression or anxiety within the past 12 months. Beyond Blue Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Georgie Harman says, “Young mothers face higher risks of developing depression due to a range of reasons such as social isolation, financial pressures, relationship problems and family turmoil. “The figures show young mums are at risk of experience depression and anxiety if they don’t get the help they need early” (ANMI, p 1). In addition, Dr. Stacy Hodgkinson, PHD, Dr. Lee Beers, MD, Cathy Southammakosane, MD, and Amy Lewin, PysD, call attention to the Office of the American Academy of Pediatrics and clearly states that young parents needs mental health services. Dr. Hodgkinson asserts that young parenthood is associated with a range of outcomes for young mothers, including mental health problems, such as depression, substance abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorders. Dr. Hodgkinson emphasize that teen mothers are poor and reside in communities and families that are socially and economically disadvantaged. As Dr. Hodgkinson mentions, these circumstances can affect their maternal mental health, their parenting ability, and the behavior outcomes for their children. According to this scholarly journal, Dr. Hodgkinson believes that most adolescent mothers are more likely to be poor and disproportionately African-American and Latina; live in low-income communities or be born to parents who have very little education and employment instability or who have a history of child abuse; reside in chaotic home environments; have poor interpersonal relationships; and have a limited social support

Long-term, severe maternal depression has been found to have especially adverse consequences for child development and behavior across many spectrums. Five year old children whose mothers experienced frequent and severe depression were more likely to have behavioral problems and lower language scores than those whose mothers had less chronic or impactful forms of depression. Among families receiving welfare or some form of governmental assistance, children of depressed mothers have lower average scores on math achievement tests than do other children.

Depression is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in the United States. About 20% of people in the U.S. will experience an episode of depression some time in their lifetime. Of these people, women make up a majority of this group (Gotlib & Hammen, 2008). Depression is responsible for both social and economic disability among other mental and behavioral disorders during early and middle adulthood (Goodman &Tully, 2008; Wilhelm, 2006). During this period in life, women are most likely mothers and are still supremely primary caretakers for children (Goodman &Tully, 2008; Lamb, 2000). Depression can negatively affect the quality of interpersonal relationships, including spouses and children (Hammen, 2008). Mothers have the most contact and influence of a child’s caretaking. If a mother is depressed, that influence would be more impressionable than if the child’s father was depressed—in terms of the child’s ability to internalize and externalize problems (Goodman &Tully, 2008; Connell & Goodman, 2002). Children with clinically depressed mothers have been shown to experience withdrawn or negative interactions with their mothers that can subsequently lead to behavioral problems (Turney, 2011; Turner & Lloyd, 1999).