Metabolism Reaction to Foreign Objects

Exocrine glands, the liver and the kidneys remove toxins. A toxin is a biological poison. Some toxins are known to be stored in fat cells so it could be true that the more fat we have in our body the more toxic our body may become.

Xenobiotics are relatively small, non-nutrient compounds that are exogenous to the species in question (Ioannides 2002). Accordingly, xenobiotics include drugs and environmental factors, such as pollutants, pesticides and natural occurring chemicals, such as plant alkaloids (Ioannides 2002). Naturally, xenobiotics are constantly entering the body, which responds back by elimination processes, namely excretion and metabolism, to limit the exposure to xenobiotics (Ioannides 2002). Metabolism aim to alter the chemical structure of xenobiotics by wide array of biological reactions mostly enzyme mediated, leading to increase the hydrophilicity of xenobiotics, and

Background Research: Cellular Respiration is used by the cells to make ATP, by releasing chemical energy from sugars and other carbon based molecules. There are 3 stages to Cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain. The inputs of Glycolysis are 2 ATP’s, a Glucose molecule, and a Pyruvate. The inputs for the Krebs Cycle are oxygen, and. In animals, energy is consumed by eating food. In that food they eat, Glucose is found and broken down by the process of cellular respiration, which then converts into energy known as ATP. When there is a lot of ATP and Glucose, the liver converts it into glycogen.

Acetaminophen, once ingested into the body is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood stream where it reaches peak plasma concentration in as little as half an hour. Here, it circulates around the body for a period of up to 4 hours during which it produces its analgesic and antipyretic effects before the acetaminophen is metabolised and deactivated by the liver by a possible 3 pathways: Glucuronidation, sulfation and oxidation (Show below in Figure 2). The most commonly used pathway is the glucuronidation metabolism, closely followed by the sulfation pathway. These methods of metabolism deactivate the acetaminophen in the hepatocytes into non-toxic conjugated sulphate and glucuronide which are excreted in the urine [23] [24]. The majority of the initially ingested therapeutic dosage is metabolised this way, with the remaining acetaminophen being metabolised via the third hepatic cytochrome P45 oxidase pathway, primarily by the enzyme CYP2E1 [25]. When acetaminophen is metabolised via this method, a small amount of a highly reactive toxic intermediate

bodies. The toxic affects can happen in the long run, where the liver absorbs too much of the toxic

Our body is constantly working to rid itself of unwanted materials and toxins - and it does an amazing job at this. But, with the sheer number of toxins that we come in contact with - our body becomes overwhelmed and the natural process can't keep up with eliminating everything it should in order for us to remain healthy.

Spaces within cells which break down unwanted products of metabolism are called lysosomes. Several enzyme deficiencies within lysosomes may lead to creation of toxic elements resulting in metabolic disorders comprising-

excretion, the last stage of pharmacokinetics that removes drugs from the system, is via the kidneys."

The liver’s complex biochemical process of detoxification is a two phase process, converting the byproducts of metabolism and toxins to render them into safer substance. Phase one, an enzymatic process, involves approximately 100 enzymes in the cytochrome P450 system. In Phase one, the chemical reaction known as biotransformation changes the toxin in to a less toxic, water-soluble substance to allow it to be safely excreted through the kidneys or colon. Enzymes do this through oxidation, the loss of electrons, or reduction, the gain of elections. Most of the time, the enzymatic reactions in Phase one decrease the toxicity of the substance, however, a more toxic intermediate substance may be produced, this is known as bioactivation.

As doses shift from low to high, the relative importance of individual enzymes involved in the metabolism may also shift. For example, at the high dose, oxon formation correlated best the CYP3A4 activity, while at the low dose, oxon formation correlated best with the higher affinity enzyme CYP2B6. Nutrition plays a role in metabolism(Croom, 2012). Poor nutrition limits the available energy for metabolism. Metabolizing enzymes require cofactors and micronutrients that may be lost with inadequate nutrition. Food itself can change the amount of xenobiotic available for metabolism by affecting its solubility, as well as by altering gastric emptying and bioavailability(Croom, 2012). Oral exposures involve first-pass metabolism, where the bulk of the blood collected from gastrointestinal tract first passes through the liver before being transported to the rest of the body(Croom, 2012). For xenobiotics with significant dermal absorption or significant exposure through inhalation, this can dramatically increase the amount available in the circulation and if the target organ is capable of bioactivation result in significant toxicity in that

enzymes are released to destroy foreign microbes and irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollution,

Chemical-induced organ and tissue toxicity is a worldwide health concern. Liver toxicity, because of the primary role of the liver in the metabolism, detoxification, and elimination of xenobiotics, caused by the exposure to the growing number of chemical toxicants in the form of agricultural, industrial, and pharmaceutical products and food components, additives, and contaminants is the most common organ injury [1-3]. Toxicant-associated liver injury has been associated with a broad spectrum of liver pathologies ranging from acute necrosis to several types of chronic pathological states, including simple hepatic steatosis, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), toxic liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis [1,3]. Furthermore, some toxicants may act as carcinogens causing the development of cancer not only in the liver, but in other human organs and tissues as well [4,5]. This indicates that detecting, evaluating, and predicting the potential human risk posed by chemicals continues to remain of great importance.

Changing the poison to be easily removed from the body, this function is called conjugation. Hearts will use a specific enzyme to neutralize toxins into a form that can be released by the body, for example a lot of toxins that can be destroyed with fat, meaning that it can easily dissolve in fat. Processed food in the stomach and small intestine, useful products that will be absorbed, metabolized, and excreted through the trash detoxification systems: 75% through the liver. Dangerous toxin that does not dissolve in water will be solved by a particular enzyme, so that can be dissolved in water and then piped to the kidneys and colon.

- The main two jobs of the kidneys in the acid-base balance is that they absorb bicarbonate from urine and they excrete hydrogen ions into the urine. The kidneys final factor to acid base balance in the body. The kidneys can absorb as many acids or bases as required to keep the body at homeostasis or

Biotransformation involves the way in which the organism copes with potentially dangerous compounds found. They detoxification systems will try to eliminate poisonous food substances as well as drug molecules because they act as toxic agents to the body (Doweiko, 2009). Biotransformation is generally carried out in the liver although some tissues might also be involved in this process as well (Doweiko, 2009). The way the human digestive tract works is that it is designed not to allow any chemical to that has been absorbed to pass into circulation until it is first filtered through the liver (Doweiko, 2009). The liver acts as a kind of water purifier when it comes to the body. The bad substances are filtered out so that the body can keep most of the good substances.