Mitochondrial Transference

Assay of succinate dehydrogenase of after isolation of mitochondria in Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) using differential centrifugation.

In 2001, the Food and Drug Administration has declared mitochondrial replacement as a form of gene therapy (Hayden). When new genetic material is introduced into the gametes (or embryo), it modifies the germline. This genetic modification is not only passed on to the child, but also the subsequent generations (Bredenoord, Pennings, and Wert 670). Techniques such as PNT and MST, makes it possible for children to be born with normal cellular energy production, because healthy donated mtDNA would populate their cells. As a consequence of this intervention, the resulting child’s sperm or egg cells their (‘germline’) would also develop using the donor’s mitochondria (Nuffield Council on Bioethics 57).

DNA phenotyping serves to determine the physical attributes of a specific individual based off of genetic material that was left behind at a crime scene. By being able to determine physical traits such as hair color, eye color, height and skin pigmentation researchers can narrow in on the appearance of a person who committed a crime. This is crucial in forensic genetics who’s geneticists play a vital role in investigating crimes and in turn play a

Mitochondria is inherited maternally, so a mother will pass on the mtDNA mutation to her offspring. It is generally not paternally inherited because during fertilisation the sperm sheds it tail with carries the genetic information for mitochondria. However there has been some cases of paternal transfer of mtDNA in patients with mitochondrial myopathy. Homoplasmy- all mtDNA are identical. Heteroplasmy- There is a mutation of mtDNA, needs to reach a threshold of about 60% for clinical signs to be apparent.

Mitochondrial cytopathy is a genetic heritable disorder [5]. It occurs as a result of DNA mutation in the gem-line cells that can be transmitted to the second generation. This type of genetic disorder is often caused by mutations in the mitochondrial DMA versus the nucleic DNA. The mitochondria DNA is 20-30 times more susceptible to acquire mutations secondary to absence of DNA repair mechanisms in the mitochondria, giving rise to frequent point mutations or deletions in the mtDNA during cell division[1]. Such mutations are inherited exclusively from the maternal mitochondria. The paternal mitochondria do not contribute to the fetal mitochondria [6]. When some of the mitochondria in the ovum have mutations in their DNA, some of those defected mitochondria will go to daughter cells upon division. If the cells receiving the defected mtDNA contribute to forming tissues that are actively dividing after birth, they will be eliminated by the natural selection process after successive cell divisions. In contrast, if the cells inheriting the defected mitochondria developed into organs or tissues of limited dividing ability, this will result in problems related to energy metabolism in that organ [6]. Due to the random nature of the process, defected mitochondria may end up randomly in different types of tissue and at different concentration. This explains the variations in the manifestation, progression, prognosis and severity of the disorder.

Mitochondrion’s most important job is to produce energy through cellular respiration. Mitochondria does this by taking in nutrients from the cell itself, breaking it down and then turning it into energy. Then, the energy gathered is utilised by the cell to carry out various functions, hence this organelle is also known as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell. Its purpose is to keep the cell full of energy.

It is a mitochondrial disorder inherited only from mothers because mitochondria are passed on to the developing embryo from egg cells (“Genetics Home Reference,”2013). Mitochondria are important structures inside the cells to generate ATP, a form of energy that can be used in our body. Since our eyes require large amounts of energy, any dysfunction of the mitochondria can have a dramatic effect in vision. The majority of patients diagnosed with LHON have genetic mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Approximately 90% of patients with LHON have one of three mtDNA mutations: m.11778G>A (the most common), m.3460G>A, or m.14484T>C (“Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy,” n.d., Causes section, para. 3). These mutated genes disrupt the proteins in the mitochondrial enzyme complex that help convert oxygen, fats, and simple sugars to energy which cause optic nerve cell damage (“Genetics Home Reference,”2013). It is important to note that even though an individual may be a carrier of one the gene mutations, does not mean they will develop the disease. Scientists have been unable to find out why it affects more males than

This can be passed down from the father but it’s rare when it happens.Doctors do not know what causes it but they do believe it has something to do with DNA that causes cells to be cancerous.

Mitochondrial diseases are not the only diseases that can be inherited from parents. There are diseases, disorders, syndromes, etc, such as SCIDS (Severe Combined Immune Deficiency Syndrome), Hemophilia, Tay-Sachs disease, and many more. For a majority of the diseases, an individual must inherit two recessive alleles in order for that disease trait to be expressed. Both people in a couple can get tested to see if they are a carrier for the disease. A problem can soon arise if both individuals are carriers of a severe disease that can be fatal or detrimental to the baby’s health because the baby will have fifty percent chance of being homozygous recessive for the disease and a fifty chance of being homozygous dominant for the disease, but

The mother and the father must have the defective gene in order for the child to inherit the gene. Most of the time the parents do not realize they are carriers.

In the 21st century human cloning has become a huge component of modern day society, it’s mainly being looked at as a way for human infertility problems to be solved through a process of somatic cell nuclear transfer. But is this process actually helping or benefiting the cloning of humans? The answer is simple, no. Somatic cell nuclear transfer is a technique for cloning in which the nucleus is removed from a healthy egg. This egg becomes the host for a nucleus that is transplanted from another cell, such as a skin cell. The resulting embryo can be used to generate embryonic stem cells with a genetic match to the nucleus donor (therapeutic cloning), or can be implanted into a surrogate mother to create a cloned individual, such as Dolly the

Mitochondria mosaicism: Mitochondria mosaicism occurs when there are distinct genetic populations of mitochondria within a cell. A human cell contains several mitochondria, where each contains several dozen circular mitochondrial chromosomes.[1] Since the rate of mutation of mitochondrial DNA is about tenfold higher than nuclear DNA, a cell can have genetically diverse mitochondria- which is termed heteroplasmy.[1] This can affect biochemical processes if frequency mitochondrial DNA mutations is high which can result in defective oxidative phosphorylation.[1] This is associated with pathogenesis in multiple diseases[1], such as those that are age related and affect tissues that are highly dependent ATP such as retina, brain, cardiac

Previously mitochondria were considered to be static and isolated organelles. However, it has now been established that mitochondria form a complex, interconnected, and highly dynamic network. Mitochondria dynamics also involves changes in mitochondrial morphology, number in the cell and movement along the cytoskeleton. Mitochondrial dynamics is said to be tightly regulated by mitochondrial fusion and fission.

In the word, mito means thread and chondria means grain, corn, cartilage. Literally, inside of a mitochondria, inner membrane looks like thread and outside of mitochondria , outer membrane looks like a bean. This element can find in all eukaryotic cells and size is like a bacteria. Mitochondria is provided or destroyed depending on how much energy the cell needs. Because the main function of mitochondria is making energy. Mitochondria break down sugars and combine with oxygen to make ATP. ATP is an primary energy for the cell.

The second way to get hESCs is by man-created. One technology of man-creating hESCs is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), commonly referred to as cloning. This technique is also used in therapeutic cloning, which creates hESCs to treat or cure a patient with the disease. Since the created hESC contains DNA that’s virtually identical to the existing patient, this could eliminate the significant problem of tissue rejection, which could be the “impediment to the clinical success of regenerative medicine.” (Korobkin 66) And this SCNT process does not involve sperm which means that it does not involve sexual reproduction. Another technology is in vitro fertilization (IVF), using both eggs and sperm which involves sexual reproduction. Both technologies can produce hESCs, but IVF is more morally accepted worldwide. The reason for this may be that SCNT could increase the supply of embryos and “decrease respect or awe before them.” (Holland 46); embryos created by SCNT are not genetically unique with the acknowledge that genetic uniqueness is one of the “valued properties of embryos crated by IVF.” (Holland 47); imperfectness of cloning technique with a human somatic cell; SCNT does not produce a pure clone so that immune rejection will not be fully eliminated. IVF is “the crucial first step in transforming human procreation in radically new ways.” (Furcht 94)