Neurotransmitters In The Brain

As an action potential travels down the axon of the presynaptic neuron, the action potential reaches the axon terminal synaptic vesicles which migrate toward the synapse. They then release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters travel through the synaptic cleft and bind to ligand-gated ion channels on the postsynaptic neuron membrane. The channels open and allow chemicals to enter the cell (i.e. sodium). Then positively charged sodium enters the cell and causes the cell to depolarize. The depolarization spreads down the axon and an action potential is generated. The process then starts over at the axon terminals.

The purpose of this essay is to explain the mechanisms of neural communication, and the influence that different drugs have on this communication. The nervous system is made up of several cells that are called neurons, which are situated inside the Central Nervous System (Martin, Carlson & Buskit, 2013). Neurons comprise of three mechanisms, a cell body which is referred to as the soma, dendrites and an axon (Pinel, 2011).

Seizures are caused by a neurologic malfunction that causes abnormal electrical activity within the brain. These can be localized or cause symptoms such as numbness that stems from an explosive firing of nerves in the brain. Tumors or brain damage can cause someone to develop this disease. There is no cure for them but medications can help to reduce seizures. My dad is on two different medication that

Experts believe bipolar disorder is caused by an underlying problem with specific brain circuits and the balance of brain chemicals called neurotransmitters (WebMD). There are five brain chemicals noradrenaline (norepinephrine), serotonin, dopamine, oxytocin, and endorphin. Noradrenaline and serotonin are the most common chemicals linked to psychiatric mood disorders such as depression and bipolar (WebMD). Dopamine is linked to the pleasure system in the brain (WebMD). When a disruption happens to the dopamine system connects to psychosis and schizophrenia (WebMD). If there is too much dopamine in one place, it can cause psychosis. Dopamine motivates us (Deans, 2011). Dopamine is linked to everything, metabolism, evolution, and the brain (Dean, 2011). Serotonin is connected to many different body functions including sleep, wakefulness, eating and impulsivity (WebMD). Researchers believe that abnormal brain functioning of brain circuits that involve serotonin as a chemical messenger contributes to mood disorders (WebMD). Oxytocin is a hormone commonly associated with childbirth and breastfeeding. Oxytocin plays a critical role in social and emotional behavior. Oxytocin increases the susceptibility to feeling fearful and anxious during stressful events (NWU, 2013).

As well as these there are also the axon of the cell which is covered in myelin sheaths which carried information away from the cell body and hands the action potentials, these are small short bursts of change in the electrical charge of the axon membrane through openings of ion channels, off to the following neurons dendrites through terminal buttons at the end of the axons. Whenever an action potential is passed through these terminal buttons it releases a chemicals that pass on the action potential on to the next neuron through the terminal button and dendrite connection. The chemicals that are

Neurotransmitters are chemicals made by neurons and used by them to transmit signals to the other neurons or non-neuronal cells (e.g., skeletal muscle; myocardium, pineal glandular cells) that they innervate. The neurotransmitters produce their effects by being released into synapses when their neuron of origin fires (i.e., becomes depolarized) and then attaching to receptors in the membrane of the post-synaptic cells. This causes changes in the fluxes of particular ions across that membrane, making cells more likely to become depolarized, if the neurotransmitter happens to be excitatory, or less likely if it is inhibitory.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that travels across the synapse between a neuron and another neuron, muscle fiber, or gland. Hormone is a chemical messenger of the endocrine system that is released by a gland or organ and travels through the blood. Neurotransmitter and hormone both compare because they both are chemical messenger, both chemicals are released from vessels into the surrounding fluid by similar mechanisms. They both work by binding to receptors on target cells. Neurotransmitter and hormones are very important systems, which regulate the various activities of the body, and are dependent on the release of special chemicals. Furthermore, the tissues in the Central Nervous System produce some hormones, as well as the neurotransmitters. What sets neurotransmitter and hormone apart? Neurotransmitters belong to the nervous system, however hormones belong to the endocrine system. Hormones and neurotransmitters are engendered differently; hormones are engendered by endocrine glands while neurotransmitters are engendered by neurons. The transmission of neurotransmitters is across the synaptic cleft, whereas that of hormones is by blood. Hormones are able to regulate their target organs, whereas neurotransmitters are able to stimulate the postsynaptic membranes. The action of neurotransmitters is extremely fast, which could be up to a few milliseconds. In contrast, effect of hormones could be lost for a long period, which could be in the range of few seconds to a few days.

There are different kinds of seizures, each having different effects. There is the generalized seizures which is a kind of seizure that affects the entire brain.There is the partial seizures which affects part of the brain. There is non-epileptic seizures, which is not really related to seizures, but it is caused by things,

AMPA receptors are localized at a postsynaptic level and under normal condition transduce responses to glutamate, released before the junction across which a nerve impulse passes from an axon terminal to a neuron, muscle cell, orgland cell. In the brain, AMPA receptors are the most represented ionotropic glutamate receptors and mediate excitatory neurotransmission. Hypersensitivity and overexpression of AMPA receptors in human epileptic hippocampal and neocortical tissue has been reported and an excessive glutamate release has been observed during seizure activity. (Zaccara et al., 2013) studies Suggest that reducing the overstimulation of AMPA receptors via AMPA receptor antagonism can have an anticonvulsant effect and inhibit seizure generation and spread. In addition to their anticonvulsant effects, AMPA receptor antagonists could play an important neuroprotective role by preventing neuronal death and could elicit an anti-epileptogenic effect (Franco et al.,

The main components of the synapses are as follows: The Axon terminal, found at the end of the Axon, passes neurotransmitters to other neurons via synaptic transmission. Synaptic Vesicles contain neurotransmitters within the Axon. Neurotransmitters themselves are chemical messengers that travel through the neurons and activate receptors on the receiving cell. The neurotransmitters are diffused through the synaptic cleft—a region between the two neurons and gap the neurotransmitter needs to cross to make it to the receiving cell. Said receiving cell is what receives the neurotransmitters and starts the process over again. The receptors on the cell are structures that receive the neurotransmitters and

As soon as the electrical signal reaches the end of the axon, mechanism of chemical alteration initiates. First, calcium ion spurt into the axon terminal, leading to the release of neurotransmitters “molecules released neurons which carries information to the adjacent cell”. Next, inside the axon terminal, neurotransmitter molecules are stored inside a membrane sac called vesicle. Finally, the neurotransmitter molecule is then discharged in synapse space to be delivered to post synaptic neuron.

Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which individuals have recurrent seizures. Seizures can occur in children and adults of any age. There are around 50 million people in the world who has the disorder. Individuals in developing countries are at a higher risk for developing the disorder. Seizures occur due to hyper-excitability and hyper-synchronization of neurons. Action potential transmits messages and it leads to depolarization. When neurons are uncontrollably depolarizes because of hyper-excitability due to too little inhibition, it cause a seizure. Seizures can last from a few seconds to a few minutes. As spontaneously they can develop is also as fast and spontaneous they can end.

In a normal and healthy nervous system, many electrical signals are received and sent through neurons. The arrival of those signals at the end of the neuron triggers the release of many chemicals, in specific, neurotransmitters (Brooker, 2011). These chemicals travel into a gap between the presynaptic (end of one neuron) and the beginning of he postsynaptic (next neuron). This gap is named a synapse (Brooker, 2011). Neurotransmitters are then released into the synapse and then bind to the ibid (post -synaptic neuron). When this

Most people usually think of the brain or heart being the most important part of our body. While they are indeed important, they would be entirely useless if certain substances called neurotransmitters didn’t exist. Neurotransmitters are substances in our body that carry signals from one nerve cell to another. Without these neurotransmitters in our body, we wouldn’t receive crucial signals such as telling our heart to beat. Six of the most common neurotransmitters in our body are dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).

Thank to my undergraduate education in biology at the Complutense University of Madrid, I gained a solid background in cell and molecular biology, biomedicine and neurobiology. My interest in the study of the functioning of the brain and, at the same time, my concern for the relative lack of knowledge of major neurological disorders such as epilepsy prompted me to extend my academic training in neurosciences at the VU University Amsterdam, where I benefited of a highly international and intellectually challenging environment. Due to my participation in numerous seminars, journal clubs and poster markets, I have developed a strong