Notes

Potassium works with sodium to regulate the body’s water balance. The kidneys help to control the blood pressure by controlling the amount of fluid stored in the body. Therefore, the more fluid then the higher the blood pressure is. The kidneys do this by filtering out the blood and extracting any extra fluid, which then is stored in the bladder as urine. This is done very delicately as both sodium and potassium pull the water across the wall of the cells from the bloodstream into a collecting channel that leads to the bladder. When eating to much salt, the amount of sodium in the bloodstream will be imbalanced compared to the amount of potassium and thus reducing the ability of the kidneys remove the extra fluid. Eating more fruit and vegetables, the potassium levels increase and can help restore the chemical imbalance. However, there is a possibility of too much potassium, also known as hyperkalemia, which can lead to other issues like renal failure.

Polyuria: is more than normal or increased urine output. Water homeostasis is controlled by a complex balance of water intake, renal perfusion, glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption of solutes, and reabsorption of water from the renal collecting ducts. When intake of water increases, blood volume rises and blood osmolality falls, lowering the release of ADH (arginine vasopressin, which promotes water reabsorption) in the hypothalamic pituitary system. With the lowering of ADH there is a rise in urine volume, which allows blood osmolality to return to normal. Urine containing large amounts of glucose has high osmotic pressure, which attracts water, so that urine output rises (osmotic diuresis).

The stimulus produced a change that lead to decreases in blood volume and hydration. The change, detected by the hypothalamus, the control centre, which maintains homeostasis, initiates the pituitary gland to secrete ADH. This is used to prevent dehydration by retaining water and explains the low volume of urine. Furthermore, the adrenal glands secrete aldosterone, signalling the kidney to reabsorb more sodium, increasing blood volume. Since chips are high in sodium, more concentrated urine was produced as the heart secretes ANP to enable the out flow of sodium. The electrolyte drink and water had similar results. The frequency of colour one increased significantly and colour five decreased, indicating more dilute urine due to drinking large amounts of liquids. Secretion of ADH would have slowed down of ceased as reabsorption of water was not required, therefore, large amounts of dilute urine was excreted. Water had a higher frequency of colour one than the electrolyte drink as it does not contain sodium, whereas electrolyte drinks do and hence, had more people with urine of colours three and four. This is an example of a negative feedback system as the hypothalamus detects a change generated by a stimulus and initiates the appropriate glands to secrete specific hormones to respond and correct the change.

A decrease of water in the blood is perceived by the Hypothalamus. The Hypothalamus nerve cells produce a kind of water pill hormone called (ADH). ADH hormones enters the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and exist through the rear lobe of the pituitary gland. ADH starts an increase in the absorption of water to the distal consulate tubes and collecting ducts of the nephron. Water is transported from being filtered back into the blood, causing an increase collection of water in the blood leading to more blood volume. Therefore, increasing the blood pressure and decreasing the urine output amounts.

Hypovolemic shock is the result of whole blood loss, and plasma or interstitial fluid loss in large amounts. Moreover, hypovolemic shock begins when the intravascular volume decreases by approximately fifteen percent. The pathophysiology of hypovolemic shock includes both the heart rate and SVR increasing. As a result cardiac output and tissue perfusion pressures are boosted and interstitial fluid moves into the vascular compartment. Also, both the liver and spleen boost the body’s blood volume by disgorging the stored red blood cells and plasma. In the kidneys, renin prompts the release of aldosterone and also the retention of sodium. Whereas, ADH that is from the posterior pituitary gland surges water retention. In addition, if the initial

In this essay I will be discussing four conditions: respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis. I will be defining each condition by including the levels of PCO2 or HCO3- and the pH levels, common causes for each condition, the compensatory mechanism for each condition, treatment mechanisms for each condition, and how older age may compromise the acid-base balance processes.

After absorbed in your intestine, water enters your blood and circulates through your body in blood vessels. The blood is pumped by the heart. Proteins in your blood, e.g. albumin, keep water inside the vessel wall. When water reaches the kidney, it will be filtrated and become urine. Any disturbance in this delicate system will result in excessive

Respiratory acidosis occurs when the rate of oxygen eliminated from the body fluids via the lungs drops this causes the concentration of carbon dioxide to increase in the body fluid. This increases the concentration of hydrogen to increase in turn this causes the decrease of the pH in the body fluids to drop below 7.35. This causes respiratory acidosis. Respiratory acidosis is usually a symptom of an underlying condition such as asthma, COPD, pneumonia, obesity, or sleep apnea. Signs and symptoms include (acute) headache, anxiety, restlessness, confusion, and blurred vision. (Chronic) memory loss, sleep

has an elevated heart rate, a low blood pressure, and a low/decreased urine output. According to Lewis et al. (2014), these findings indicate inadequate amounts of fluid resuscitation, which indicates the intravascular fluids are continuing to deplete. We need to increase the amount of fluids in this case because if we don’t, then shock will result in the development of renal failure in the patient (Lewis et al., 2014). This isn’t good, so be aware of these findings become fluid resuscitation is extremely important in a burn victim. The nurse will need to notify the physician of these findings, so that way he or she can increase the amount of lactated Ringer’s solution being infused in the patient via large-bore IV’s (16 gauge or higher) or using a central line. According to the University of Michigan (2018), if the urine output is less than 0.5 to 1 mL/kg/hr. (approximately around 30 mL/hr.), then you should increase the infusion of Lactated Ringer’s solution by at least 33% of the patient’s hourly calculated fluid requirements mentioned above. Monitor this hourly; the goal is to get A.N. up to 30

Produced in the outer area of the adrenal glands aldosterone’s primary role within the body is to maintain equilibrium in the body’s organs, including blood vessels, the heart and in the central nervous system (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014 pp1174, 639). Influencing the body’s ability to control blood pressure, aldosterone signals the colon and kidneys to increase the levels of sodium sent into the bloodstream or the amounts of potassium discharged from the urine. The hormone also induces the bloodstream to reabsorb water along with the salt; thereby increasing blood volume and consequently, blood pressure. Thus indirectly, aldosterone regulates blood levels of sodium, potassium, and hydrogen, helping to maintain the pH of the blood (Tortora &

It is without doubt that there is an abnormal shift in a patient’s laboratory values when there is an excess amount of fluid present in the body. Surprisingly, not all of patient C.Z’s laboratory values were out of normal ranges. For instance, the patient’s calcium level was 9.2; normal values are between 9.0 to 10.5 (Pagana et al., 2015). The sodium level was 141; normal levels are 136 to 145 (Pagana et al., 2015). The troponin level was 0.01; normal levels should remain below 0.1 (Pagana et al., 2015). The final normal laboratory value was the patient’s potassium level, which was 4.0; normal values range from 3.5 to 5.0 (Pagana et al., 2015).

When a hydrated person drinks an excess amount of water, the ECF becomes diluted which then causes ECF osmolarity to decrease. The body’s normal response to this is to produce and excrete lots of dilute urine in order to return ECF osmolarity to homeostatic levels. To produce this large amount of hypo-osmotic urine and return ECF osmolarity back to normal, water reabsorption is decreased to allow excess water to be excreted as urine. This is achieved by the osmoreceptor reflex, which involves the use of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the process of diuresis. When osmoreceptors detect a decrease in ECF osmolarity, ADH secretion from the anterior pituitary is stopped and the levels of ADH in the blood rapidly drop. In response to the absence

The urinary system has many vital functions to the body. The kidneys are part of the urinary system. Kidneys filter blood plasma breaking down wastes and then excrete those wastes in the form of urea. The job of the glomerulus is to filter blood. Blood volume as water and sodium are filtered and eliminated in urine. Cardiac output is affected by blood volume which causes blood pressure changes. The kidneys contribute to acid base balance along with lungs by reabsorbing filtered bicarbonate and excreting fixed acids. The kidneys are tasked with producing erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cells. Calcitriol is made in the proximal tubule and increases absorption of calcium

Aldosterone: hormone secreted from the adrenal gland to signal the kidneys to retain sodium from the excretion

There are two main points that are considered important for ability of controlled voiding. Firstly, the sufficient production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) , which reduces urine production at night. Moreover, one has to be able to wake up themselves when the bladder is full. Treatment such as the bedwetting alarms and DDAVP tablets are based on these factors, in order to cure and improve them.