Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification ( NASBA ) Consequences

A particular stain of the Zika Virus, PRVABC59, has recently become an epidemic in South America and the Pacific¹, and in the last month has spread to Florida. PRVABC59 is a Flavivirus, ssRNA(+), is spread by Aedes Aegypti and Aedes Albopictus mosquitoes and is capable of spreading from mother to unborn child during pregnancy. Although the Zika virus normally doesn’t cause severe symptoms, further complications arise if a fetus is infected, as stated by the World Health Organization “There is scientific consensus that Zika virus is a cause of microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome”. Before more research can be done to develop a vaccine or treatment, a specific primary antibody must be created as a tool for further research about the function of the ten proteins in the Zika genome. This project worked on nine of these proteins in ten parts. Two structural proteins, capsid and pre-membrane protein, and the seven non-structural proteins, with NS5 being split into two pieces due to its size and toxicity. A previous method of protein production and purification2 was followed to create these antibodies. This method of protein production and purification should lead to a primary antibody specific to recombinant proteins of the PRVABC59 strain of Zika virus, which is a necessary tool for further research into the PRVABC59 strain.

The vaccination process would not be a simple administered injection because of the underlying fact that each mosquito can potentially transmit a different type of west nile virus lineage. The vaccine would have to be specific to that west nile virus lineage, as transmitted per mosquito. In the ideal clinic, a blood sample of an infected individual would be collected and analyzed for the formation of antibodies against the specific virus lineage. This would ensure that that the correct virus lineage would be targeted in the vaccine. The proteins to be further administered with the west nile vaccine would originate from a serum sample collected afterwards with the specific virus strain. Multiple intravenous and intradermal injections of the plasmid DNA proposed vaccine

The Dengue virus is currently the most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne viral infection in the world. Yearly, it brings 50 million infections and a minimum of 1200 deaths. Originally, Dengue fever was transmitted to apes and monkeys by the Aedes stegomia mosquito, and rarely directly to humans. The main reason Dengue has been spreading increasingly over the past 25 years is because of the urbanization of tropical environments. The destruction of the jungles for habitation put humans in close range of the natural Dengue hosts, causing an outbreak of the virus in the human species (Macklin, 2014). In this case, the human impact on the viruses was the human interference with the environment in which this virus

West Nile Encephalitis is a West Nile Virus that causes inflammation of the brain. The viral family’s name is flaviviridae and genera flavivirus (Tortora. Funke. Case, 2010, p 376). The flavivirus genome consists of positive RNA single strand. However, the virus has acquired several mutations and research is ongoing (Tortora, Funke, Case, 2010 p 223). West Nile virus is an arthropod-borne virus and is transmitted to human beings through the bite of infected mosquitoes. It is the leading cause of domestically acquired arthropod-borne disease in the United States. (Nicole, 2014 para.1). According to the World Health Organization (2011), “Approximately 80% of people who are infected will not show any symptoms. However, less than 1% of the people who are infected will show severe symptoms resulting to a serious neurological illness like encephalitis.” (Center for Disease Control (2015)

Once infected with the Dengue virus cells called Langerhans detect and alert the Immune system to target the foreign particles (Nature Education, 2014), Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease can go by undiscovered as your body is never alerted of these foreign particles because they are not perceived to be so (US National Library of Medicine , 2012). There are some similarities in these two diseases, they are both able to rapidly infect cells ; the Dengue virus simply fight back the cells attacking it and infect them whilst Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease uses axoplamic travel to infect more prion proteins as they go. The cellular response to the Dengue virus entails monocytes and macrophages ingesting and destroying infected cells, interferons being produced to help fight the virus, B and T cells working to detect and attack with antibodies and lastly the use of the complement system to release white blood cells as well as other antibodies to remove the virus from the host (National Library of Medicine,

The four dengue viruses are closely related,they share approximately 65% of their genomes, but even within a single serotype, there is some genetic variability (8).Even though there are variations, infection with each of the dengue serotypes results in the same disease and symptoms. The virus thrives in tropical and subtropical climates across the globe. It originated as an infectious agent in primates and apes and it has since evolved with humans.

Each year, about 100-200 suspected cases have been reported in the United States brought by travelers. Dengue is transmitted through a mosquito bite that is infected with the dengue virus. "The mosquito becomes infected with dengue virus when it bites a person who has dengue and after about a week can transmit the virus while biting a healthy person" (CDC, 2012). Everyone is susceptible to dengue. There is no vaccine available. The best preventive measure is to eliminate places where mosquitos lay their eggs, most especially in big containers, or properly covered. Utilizing air conditioners and screened doors and windows and appropriate use of insect repellants could decrease the spread of infection. Community education and effort to increase awareness about dengue, recognizing it and controlling the transmission process is an important role the nurse and the community needs to collaborate to break the chain of infection and prevent the spread of

There are two different kinds of lab tests, Molecular tests and Serology tests. A Molecular test is looking for evidence of an active infection of MERS-CoV. Molecular tests are used to diagnose patients who are thought to be infected with MERS-CoV because of their symptoms. Real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT- PCR) assays are molecular tests that are used to find specific RNA that come from the virus in a host's body. This test converts the viral RNA into its DNA. After it is converted, you look at one of MERS-CoV's DNAs and see if it matches. If it does, this is a positive test and the patient is infected with MERS. The success of the test depends on several things. These factors include the experience of the lab workers, the environment (no contamination), and the condition and type of the specimens being tested. When doing this test, multiple specimens are recommended to get to best result. However, a serology test is used in a different way. It is made to detect previous infection in patients may have had the virus. To do this, the serology test looks for antibodies to MERS-CoV. "Antibodies are proteins produced by the body's immune system to attack and kill viruses, bacteria, and other microbes during infection." If the test finds antibodies to MERS-CoV it proves that the patient has previously been infected with the virus and now has an immune response. It has one screening test and two confirmatory tests to find antibodies to MERS-CoV. The screening part is called enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELIZA) and the confirmatory tests are called immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and microneutralhzation assay to check for the positive result. (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome,

The yellow fever virus that was discovered in 3000 B.C.E has infected millions and killed many. It now has a vaccine, and prevention tips because it is significantly similar to the West Nile virus. These two viruses are spread by direct contact with an infected person’s bodily fluids and also mosquitos who carry the disease. They are more common in third world countries like “Africa and the region of South America” (CDC 4). This is a deadly disease that needs to be caught early and treated with extreme

The most sophisticated way may be to avoid the mosquitos altogether. According to the World Health Organization More than a handful governments and pharmaceutical companies are working on a vaccine for Zika. Some are hunting old-fashioned vaccines, like the ones used to protect from measles and chicken pox; these vaccines stimulate the body's immune response by exposing it to a faded version of the virus or just simply to the molecules from a virus that cause the body to produce antibodies. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) mentioned that by following the blueprint used to create a vaccine for the mosquito-borne West Nile virus would be a cheaper and faster way around it. That technique relies on injecting DNA particles — normally found inside the cells of a bacteria — that are separated from a cell's DNA and can duplicate by itself. DNA molecules (plasmids) have the advantage of carrying the DNA code for their virus' antigens, without being contagious, therefore stimulating the body's autoimmune response. So far, the plasmid-based West Nile virus vaccine was successful in its early experimental tests.

From the first outbreak in DRC in 1976 to the recent epidemic in West Africa (2013 - 2015), there has been a considerable amount of research done to further the development of the diagnosis and therapeutic strategies of the Ebola virus. Methods for detecting the virus have improved drastically. From the initial stage of simply identifying the virus as a whole, diagnosis can now define the specific species of the virus. Diagnosis processes developed over the years are those that involve Cell Culture, Antibody Detection, Protein Antigen Detection, Conventional RT-PCR, and Real Time RT-PCR, which is the current standard for EVD diagnosis. In terms of the therapeutic process, there is still no cure or vaccine that has been approved or cleared for use on human patients with EVD. The therapy hence largely depends on the immunity of the patient and general treatment of symptoms as they occur.

Yellow fever is defined as an acute haemorrhagic fever, sometimes associated with extensive hepatic necrosis and jaundice. The disease is said to be caused by insect-borne flavivirus that is also a single stranded RNA virus. (Strayer, R. R. D. (2011).Yellow fever virus is an Alpha virus belonging to the Flaviridae virus family that uses primates as monkeys as its primary reservoir and transmitted to hosts such as humans using mosquito vectors called Aedes aegypti. Once the virus has been introduced into humans, several clinical manifestations present in the beginning such as fever, chills, headaches, nausea, vomiting etc... (Tortora, F. C. (2014).These symptoms followed by signs of hepatic failure ,where the liver damage caused by the deposition of bile salts in the skin and mucous membrane noted as the yellowing of the skin, this is the reason why the disease resulted from the infection is called Yellow fever. (Tortora, F. C. (2014) .Yellow fever is preventable if the virus has not been introduced into the human host yet, due to the presence of an effective vaccine currently being used worldwide. This review literature review examines the vaccine developed to prevent yellow fever. This done by looking at how the vaccine generate immunity, its effectiveness, the downsides of using the vaccine and if they are, some of the ways to improve the vaccine.

Dengue Fever is a common disease that can be contracted by people who are visiting South-East Asia. The way a person contracts this disease is through mosquito bites. The patient has stated that when she was traveling abroad that she was bitten by a multitude of mosquitos, one of which could have infected her with the disease. On top of that common symptoms include, high fever, fatigue, headache, muscle and joint pain. All of these symptoms have been experienced by our patient. It is important to note that dengue fever does produce a rash, however, our patient’s rash has gone aware.

Dengue Fever, a tropical arbovirus infection (viruses transmitted by arthropods to humans), is an emerging viral disease infecting approximately 100 million individuals globally (52% at risk) per year living in dengue-risk areas, primarily tropical urban areas and subtropical ones.1 Most cases are commonly distributed and reported among humans in India, South East Asia, South and Central America, Africa, and the Caribbean. It has plagued such regions for centuries and turned into a crucial public health concern in need of stringent control measures. However, considering the probable fact that no other nation in the globe

The study evaluates a mobile rapid PCR diagnostic device and assay card for dengue virus (DENV), Plasmodium spp., Zika virus (ZIKV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Yersinia pestis, Leptospira spp., and the emerging infections Ebola virus, Lassa virus, and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) virus to support a regulatory filing with the FDA. Because it functions in clinical and field settings, this novel device is uniquely suited to reduce the burden of malaria and emerging infectious diseases among US military personnel by facilitating rapid diagnosis and treatment and screening emergency blood donors or products.