Osteichtyes

The esophagus is responsible for establishing the conditions of water take up as it goes through the gastrointestinal tract. This is achieved by having low water permeability and high salt transport. Because the esophagus absorbs ions all while not taking up the available water, it lowers the seawaters osmotic pressure. This low salinity high water solution then travels to the intestines where it is able to be absorbed due to the altered osmotic pressure of the seawater.

Although the function of the urinary system is used to filter and eliminate waste from the body, it also contributes with maintenance of homeostasis of water and blood pressure, regulates electrolytes, pH balance, and activates vitamin D. The urinary system consists of 2 kidneys which extract wastes from the blood, balance body fluid, and converts it into urine. It also includes 2 ureters which conduct urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder via peristalsis, a urinary bladder which serves as a reservoir for urine and finally a urethra which conducts urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for elimination. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra together form the urinary tract, which acts as a plumbing system to drain urine from the kidneys, store it, and then release it during urination (Taylor, 1999).

The Excretory system is carried on by nephridia, these are found in different pairs along the body segment. They appear as small white fibres on the dorsal side.

This article was referenced in 5.1 Hay et al, and its focus is around studying nephropore areas of sexually mature lobsters. The goal behind this study is to better identify the presence of these structures which are known to produce chemical signals in conjunction with the release of their urine. In the lobster Homarus Americanus, urine signals are used as a form of chemical communication, males use urine in the determination of dominance over other males as well as to allow females choice of dominant males. On the other hand Homarus Americanus females urine actually reduces the incidence of male aggression and increases male mating behavior. This article is more focused on the masses of rosette glands identified from all animals

In larvae the pharyngeal muscles are used for aid in digestion. In the adult animal digestion is aided by contractions. On the underside of the gut there is a hepatic caecum which engulfs food particles and performs many of the same features as a liver.

However, birds also share a similar characteristic with lizards. Birds possess scales on their legs because it is said that birds are descendants of dinosaurs (reptiles). A feature all four organisms share is their bilateral symmetry. Each organism has matching left and right sides. All have a tail except the frog. During its tadpole stage, it does have a tail. However, once it goes through metamorphosis it shrinks its tail and leaves the water to live on land in which it does not need its tail any longer. Another feature of the integumentary system are eyelids. Out of the four vertebrates mentioned, fish are the only organisms without eyelids. Eyelids are used to keep their eyes from drying out when blinking. Since fish live in water, it is not necessary for them to possess eyelids because their eyes will always remain wet. Organisms that have internal ears include the perch, frog, and pigeon. Perch do not need external ears because they pick up sound through vibrations in the water. Since water has about the same density as the body of a fish, sound passes right through their bodies. Some fish use the lateral line system and/ or the swim bladder which is easily

Osteochondrosis (OC) is an orthopaedic disorder that influence the commercial husbandry. The ossification of cartilage decides how the joints(elbows, knees and hocks) are developed during the maturity of bodies, if there is a pathological regression or disruption of blood vessels in joints, the cartilage cannot get enough nutrition to accomplish bone formation, which leads to OC. OC is discovered in many rapid growth animals such as pigs, cows, broiler chickens and horses(Ytrehus B, Carlson CS, Ekman S ,July 2007). This paper will introduce the influence of OC on pigs.

- The main two jobs of the kidneys in the acid-base balance is that they absorb bicarbonate from urine and they excrete hydrogen ions into the urine. The kidneys final factor to acid base balance in the body. The kidneys can absorb as many acids or bases as required to keep the body at homeostasis or

Filtrate from the proximal tubule flows into the descending limb of the loop of Henle, which is permeable to water but does not transport ions. As the loop dips into the medulla, water moves by osmosis from the descending limb into the progressively more concentrated interstitial fluid. As a result, solutes are left behind in the proximal tubule, and the filtrate also becomes progressively more concentrated. When the fluid flow reverses direction (when it enters the ascending limb), the properties of the tubule epithelium change: the tubule becomes impermeable to water, but actively transports Na+, K+, and Cl- out of the tubule and into the interstitial fluid. The osmolarity of the filtrate is about 10X greater at the bottom of the loop than

The total Hg concentration found in all raw fish muscle, varied between 0.03 and 0.097mgkg-1 (Table 2). The values are in good agreement with previous studies performance in the Amazon region (Rodríguez Martín-Doimeadios et al., 2014; Bastos et al., 2008, 2015; Dos Santos et al., 2000).

The urinary system has many vital functions to the body. The kidneys are part of the urinary system. Kidneys filter blood plasma breaking down wastes and then excrete those wastes in the form of urea. The job of the glomerulus is to filter blood. Blood volume as water and sodium are filtered and eliminated in urine. Cardiac output is affected by blood volume which causes blood pressure changes. The kidneys contribute to acid base balance along with lungs by reabsorbing filtered bicarbonate and excreting fixed acids. The kidneys are tasked with producing erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cells. Calcitriol is made in the proximal tubule and increases absorption of calcium

De-Boeck et al. (2000) reported that salt exposure reduced food intake by 70 % in common carp, Cyprinus carpio and had adverse effects on growth and survival. Although food consumption decreased and growth was seriously affected, routine oxygen consumption of the exposed fish did not drop, indicating a reallocation of energy expenditure from growth toward other processes.

Zebrafish is native to the southeastern Himalayan region (Burma, Nepal, India) and has its origin from the river Ganges in India. In most fish, growth (hypertrophy & hyperplasia) continues throughout life making them an important model for understanding the hormonal regulation of growth (Mommsen 2001). Zebrafish are useful in studies on the endocrinologic aspect of fish. The overall control of growth begins in the brain, although local factors in each tissues are also important. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GNRH) is synthesized in nerve cells in the brain of Zebrafish as in other vertebrates. After secretion, GHRH binds its receptor on the surface of somtotroph cells in the anterior pituitary to release growth hormone(GH), which in

The Kidneys are in charge of regulating the body’s blood flow and keeping homeostasis maintaining in the body. The kidneys are able to do this by circulation of blood and by the filtration of nephrons. Nephrons actually produce urine as well as removing waste and excess substances that are not need in the system. The Kidneys have millions of nephrons that all act as a filtration system for the blood. The body has roughly 8 liters circulating the body however only 20% finds it ways to the kidneys. Each of the nephrons contains both the renal corpuscles and Bowman’s capsule. Inside the renal tubules is proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted, and connect tubule to collecting duct.

The function of Osteocytes, (see Figure 3) is to respond to the bodies need for lower or higher circulating level of the minerals contained in the bone. Osteocytes are formed from osteoblasts that have become surrounded or trapped in matrix, and have ceased to make osteoid. The osteoid refers to the organic portion of the bone matrix. Osteocytes have three phases in its life: Formative, resorptive, and degenerative. In the formative phase, the new osteocyte resides in a space, called a lacuna, within either the osteoid or the bony tissue. Since the osteocyte is losing its ability to manufacture osteoids it still has a large Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. Although it has few lysosomes it is supplied with a fair amount of mitochondria. “In this phase, the osteocytes develop long, dendritic processes, which reside in bony