Oxidative Stress Response

The purpose of this investigation is to test the effect of different sugar sources on yeast respiration.

The bacteria produce a number of products including urease and vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA). VacA damages endosomal and lysosomal membranes and leads to cell death. Urease helps increase the environmental pH to become less

Dysbiosis is what gives rise to candida overgrowth also known as candidiasis. When beneficial microorganisms are destroyed the balance between bacteria and yeasts (Candida albicans) becomes distorted. Candida albicans is typically a beneficial part of the body's intestinal micro flora but without the proper amount of beneficial bacteria it becomes an opportunistic microorganism releasing toxins and causing symptoms throughout the body.

capsulatum must overcome numerous in vivo microenvironmental challenges to cause disease. The immediate host response is the stimulation of the macrophage’s microbicidal properties: oxidative stress, acidic pH, degradative stress caused by hydrolytic enzymes present in the lysosome, and nutrient (zinc and iron) deprivation6,7. Despite the harsh intracellular environment of the macrophage, H. capsulatum has evolved various mechanisms to evade destruction by the macrophage8. Inhaled yeasts can travel via the lymph nodes to the liver and spleen and cause disseminated infection. There activated macrophages and other host components surround the infected cells forming a circular wall of aggregated inflammatory cells or granuloma6,9. The granuloma functions to inhibit H. capsulatum growth and replication by restricting access to oxygen and nutrients and exposing the fungi to acidic pH and other immune effectors10,11. However, the fungus within the granuloma may also benefit from this isolated microenvironment. The granuloma may provide shelter from destruction by the host, and can serve as the source from which surviving pathogens emerge during reactivation of latent

N. meningitidis produce an antiphagocytic capsular polysaccharide, which is a coat with highly variable surface proteins, to permit evasiveness. Additional mechanisms such has having a high variable pili and producing high amounts of endotoxin lipopolysaccharide contributes to its pathology. N. meningitidis also happens to require iron reduction as part of their metabolism and growth and therefore validates humans as their optimal reservoirs. Other requirements for bacterial metabolism, growth and virulence are mineral salts, pyruvate, lactate, amino acids (GC), and glutamic acid. When infection occurs, N. meningitidis will aggregate blood cells

Selenium is an essential trace element found in the body that works in conjunction with other vitamins to support the powerful detoxification process. When combined with Vitamin E, Selenium can help prevent oxidative stress from occurring in the body which is crucial in the prevention of many diseases such as heart disease and cancer. According to Dr. Mandal (2015), "Oxidative stress is essentially an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the ability of the body to counteract or detoxify their harmful effects through neutralization by antioxidants." Selenium goes to work in the body as a powerful antioxidant, and it is required for the production of Glutathione, which is a key antioxidant in our bodies. Antioxidants are important in keeping the body healthy by fighting off the free radicals that our cells are exposed to on a daily basis.

The pathogenesis of C. burnetii is unusual in that it undergoes a biphasic life cycle generating a spore-like form that is extremely

Yeast contains catalase enzymes that act as catalysts for the reaction of breaking down hydrogen peroxide to get oxygen and water (2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2), which helps make a solution that’s toxic to most living organisms not toxic (lab manual). Catalysts are substances that help fasten the chemical reaction without changing the results (lab manual). There are different independent variables, such as the temperature and PH level of the environment, and the enzyme concentration that can change the rate of the enzyme activity if it was still able to function (lab manual). In this study, we are looking at how different concentrations of yeast can affect the rate of oxygen gas production, which tells us the reaction rate. The rate of oxygen gas production

Cell mediated immunity in the infected host is very important to respond to fungal invaders. Phagocytic cells like macrophages, and neutrophils produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) which kill

S. typhi has a combination of characteristics that make it an effective pathogen. This species contains an endotoxin typical of Gram negative organisms, as well as the Vi antigen which is thought to increase virulence. It also produces and excretes a protein known as “invasin” that allows non-phagocytic cells to take up the bacterium, where it is able to live intracellularly. It is also able to inhibit the oxidative burst of leukocytes, making innate immune response ineffective.

Evidence implicates the role of oxidative stress in different stages of the development of diabetes mellitus, starting from the pre-diabetes state, impaired glucose tolerance, postprandial hyperglycemia, mild diabetes and finally to overt diabetes mellitus. Besides β -cell dysfunction, insulin resistance is a major characteristic feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus in which oxidative stress plays an important role (Erejuwa, 2012).

This experiment used beets to determine peroxidase production in stressed plants. The purpose of this experiment was to test if the stressed plant would produce more peroxidase in a higher concentration than the control plant. The stressor for this experiment was watering with salt water. This stressor was chosen because it is a natural stressor to plants; especially along the coasts and where roads are salted in winter such as the Midwest. The control plant was watered with plain tap water while the experimental plant was watered with tap water plus salt. The salt water concentration was 1.2341 molar. After the two-week stress period the stressed plant was much smaller, wilted, and shriveled compared to the control plant. It also had less water content overall, which made the extraction process somewhat more challenging. To test the peroxidase production in the plants several methods were used, including: tissue printing, DOT-blot assay, electrophoretic analysis, and a spectrophotometric assay. It was concluded that the stressed plant did produce more peroxidase than the control plant and in a higher concentration.

The four most prominent factors that make pathogenic fungi a problem for human health are contributed to fungal characters of adhesion, dimorphism, thermotolerance, and invasion promoting enzymes. All of these factors compound and often incorporate one another to aide in the survival of invasive fungi.

Candidiasis refers to the fungal infection caused by any Candida which is a form of yeast. There are more than 20 species of candida yeast that might cause illnesses in people, but the common Candida species is the Candida albicans (Hospenthal & Rinaldi, 2015). However, the yeasts are found in small amounts in the mucous membrane and skin, and they do not cause infection, but the overgrowth would lead to infection. Specific drugs and health issues may cause the yeast to overgrow especially in warm and moist body parts leading dangerous symptoms. The signs and symptoms of candidiasis depend on the part of the human body that is infected (Contreras & Fuentes, 2013). Health centers in many nations have reported that Candida species cause fungal infections leading to hospitalization of patients. The paper focuses on candidiasis by exploring its causes, epidemiology, types, diagnosis and treatment as well as prevention measures and risk factors. The thesis of the paper is that candidiasis is a fatal disease that can lead to defects and even death.

Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus. This means that that C. albicans has to different phenotypic forms, an oval shaped yeast form and a branching hyphal form. C. albicans normal habitat is the mucosal membranes of humans and various other mammals including the mouth, gut, vagina, and sometimes the skin. Normally C. albicans causes no damage and lives symbiotically with the human or animal host, even helping to breakdown minute amounts of fiber that are eaten in the host’s diet. The normal bacterial flora of the gut, mouth, and vaginal mucosa act as a barrier to the over growth of fungal infections like C. albicans. Loss of this normal flora is one of the main predisposing factors to an infection by C. albicans.