PSA: Prostate Infection

PSA test results are interpreted as: 0-4 ng/mL is normal. Between 4 to 10 ng/ML is 25% of developing cancer, and > 10 ng/ml is a > 50% risk of cancer. However, some men with normal PSA levels still have prostate cancer, while other men with high PSA levels do not. PSA levels increase with age often due to a higher prevalence of benign prostate hypertrophy (BPH). Therefore, no PSA cutoff can accurately guarantee that a man does not have prostate cancer.

The first reason being the level accuracy of PSA testing is questionable. The test determines a positive for the cancer based on the levels of prostate-specific antigens in the blood of the patient, which can be abnormally high for multiple other reasons not related to prostate cancer. The major evidence supporting said claim is that individuals with more than 4.0 ng per mL (the threshold to test positive) can have false positive rates of 70% (Mulhem 2). The second reason would be the implications of testing positive for prostate cancer, including but not limited to unnecessary treatment of the disease. While the analysis does not back up unnecessary treatment with any statistical evidence, it does go to explain further tests and procedures to confirm and understand the nature of the patient’s condition. This bleeds over to the negative physical and psychological side-effects of regular prostate cancer screening cited by the analysis. Mulhem explains that after testing positive for prostate cancer, more tests are performed to determine the accuracy of the screening and if so, reveal the specificities of the cancer. The most common of these tests being the prostate biopsy, a procedure that causes a significant portion of participants to develop moderate to severe problems requiring a follow-up with their doctor (Mulhem

Second is age- and race-specific PSA reference ranges. Age- and race-specific PSA reference ranges compare the PSA test results among men in the same group. Third is Percent-free PSA (fPSA) is the percentage of the total PSA that is unbound. Evidence suggests that fPSA is lower in men who have prostate cancer compared with men who do not. Fourth are the complexed PSA (cPSA) test measures the amount of bound PSA circulating in the blood. Fifth is the PSA density (PSAD) which is a test sometimes used by doctors in patients who have a large prostate gland. To determine PSAD, the PSA value (ng/mL) is divided by the volume (size in cubic centimeters) of the prostate. The size of the prostate gland is determined by Tran’s rectal ultrasound (TRUS), a procedure that uses sound waves to create a picture of the prostate. ( (Diagnosis))

Breast caner appears in the milk-producing glands of the breast tissue. Groups of glands in normal breast tissue are called lobules. The products of these glands are secreted into a

PSA has become the most important biomarker for detection and follow up of prostate cancer. PSA levels of greater than 4.0ng/ml have been considered to have predictive value for prostate cancer. This screening test is well tolerated, quick, cheap, and standardized. Physicians are also familiar with the test results and can easily translate (Roobol et al., 2011). According to Wachtel, Nelius, Haynes, Dahlbeck, and de Riese (2013), the United States Preventative Health Task Force recently recommended PSA screening be abandoned in part by examining the results of two randomized trials, concluding that the results did not support the notion that the benefit of PSA screening outweighed the risks and costs even though there has been a steady decline in mortality since the early 1990s.

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer and it is the second leading cause of cancer death in American men according to the American Cancer Society(ACS) ( 2016). Older age is the strongest risk factor for the development of prostate cancer. Approximately 1 in 7 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during his lifetime (ACS, 2016). There are more than 2.9 million prostate cancer survivors in the United States (ACS, 2016). The risk of dying from prostate cancer is 2.9 percent, with seventy percent of deaths occurring after age 75(ACS, 2016; Howlader, Krapcho, Neyman,Aminou et al, 2011). The use of the prostate-specific antigen testing transformed prostate cancer screening in the 1990’s (Up to date) . PSA screening for prostate

Prostate cancer is a cancer relating to the prostate, a gland located in front of the rectum and below the urinary bladder (ACS 2015). Prostate cancer only affects the male population because the prostate gland is only found in the male reproductive system (FIS 2015). Among the males in the world, certain males are at higher risk than others due to certain risk factors. One of the biggest risk factors is age (PCF 2015). Only 1 in 10000 men under the age of 40 will be diagnosed with prostate cancer however 1 in 38 men between the ages of 40 – 59 will be diagnosed (PCF 2015). This then shoots up further to 1 in 14 men among the age of 60-69 (PCF 2015). Over 65% of all prostate cancer diagnoses are in men that are over the age of 65 (PCF 2015).

Researchers and scientists continue to evaluate what factors cause prostate cancer and what can be done to reduce their risks factors. Research plays a valuable role the more knowledge that is gained about the molecular and cellular events underlying prostate cancer and how these events can be interrupted the better we can react to defeating this cancer. While there is no verified way to completely prevent this disease, there are actions that one can take to lower susceptibility. It is important to determine which dietary elements correlate with altered risk of prostate cancer, and how risk may be reduced through chemoprevention. (National Cancer Institute, 1998) High levels of testosterone may increase the development of prostate cancer. For this reason it is extremely uncommon for a man who no longer creates testosterone to develop prostate cancer. And, stopping the body’s production of testosterone, called Androgen deprivation therapy, often shrinks advanced prostate cancer. See the Treatment Options section for more information. (“Prostate Cancer: Risk Factors and Prevention,” 2014) As previously noted screening for prostate cancer is done to find traces of cancer in otherwise healthy men. The two most commonly used tests to screen for prostate cancer are: the PSA blood test and digital rectal examination (DRE). A DRE is a test in which the doctor inserts a gloved lubricated finger into a man’s rectum and feels the surface of the prostate for any irregularities. (“Prostate Cancer: Risk Factors and Prevention,”

During a routine medical examination his doctor found blood in his urine. A prostate specific antigen (PSA) test was done that revealed a PSA of 50u/l. His only symptoms were sluggish morning urinary flow.

He has finished his medication. He has a little hesitancy of 20-30 seconds generally, but not in the morning his stream is good. There is no dribbling. He declines a recheck of his prostate. He feels his symptoms are resolved. He continues to have some testicular or epididymal pain, but this is managed with ibuprofen and he wishes no further evaluation for this. He has some burning and bleeding of his hemorrhoids and requests a refill of his hemorrhoid suppositories.

Using the Biuret method, the total serum-protein concentration in the patient and control samples was measured approximately 6.4% and 7.45%, respectively. The percent difference of the two trials in the patient samples was 1.6%, whereas that of the control samples was 0.67%.

A normal prostate is composed of glandular epithelial and fibromuscular stroma section. The glandular portion is contains a large peripheral zone and small central zone, making up the majority of the gland. The rest of it is composed of the transition zone and the peri-uerthral glands, where mainly benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The cancerous forms occur most in the peripheral zone (~60-70%) and in the transition zone (10-20%), but rarely in the transition zone (5-10%).9

The American Cancer Society has reported that 1 in 6 men will develop prostate cancer throughout their lifetime. There will be an expected 242,000 new cases diagnosed this year resulting in about 30,000 deaths from prostate cancer, which makes it the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Prostate cancer is increasing in numbers and causing many deaths around the world. According to the American Cancer Society, prostate cancer is usually a very slow developing cancer. Prostatic Intraepithelial neoplasia or (PIN) is a condition in which the cells inside the prostate have started to grow abnormally. Scientists count the abnormal amount of cells under a microscope and diagnose the level of abnormal cell growth. High levels of PIN

external genitalia, prostate, epididymis, and semen. In both genders, it can be in the lumen and

Besides, there are several types of cancer such as cancer of the prostate, this is the most common cancer in men. It is the cell growth of the prostate and defined as failure of PSA level to fall to undetectable range. PSA is the protein agent that facilitate the semen to maintain its liquid form. It should be noted that there is no agreement on threshold PSA level for detectable vs undetectable (Prostate cancer). Older men within the age 65-79 years are the group most affected. Ovarian cancer is another form of cancer