Pain In Veterinary Medicine

many of our fellow creatures are more like us than we have ever imagined. They feel pain, suffer and experience stress, affection, excitement and even love…” (1). This statement can also be proven through science. Just like humans, animals also have “the same types of nociceptors… A-delta and C fibers...” (Victoria Braithwaite 1). These nociceptors are used to detect pain. If animals display many of the same qualities as humans and feel pain, they should be treated more humanely.

Animals can feel pain just as humans do. When scientist talk about the similarities between humans and animals they do not consider the similarity of the pain. Believe it or not animals

Working at the Carpenter Veterinary Clinic of Nocona, Texas has impacted my life with several life-changing experiences in several small cases. Although one case will forever stay with me throughout my veterinary career, taking care of the dog with excruciating pain has made me want to stick with veterinarian practices, as well as made me stronger.

I have always had an interest in animals, having grown up alongside multiple pets; they have always been a part of my life. However, it wasn't until our beloved family dog fell ill with cancer that I began to realise the huge impact that a vet can have on the lives of both animals and humans and, I too, wanted to be able to help the lives of not only animals, but also the people who love them. My desire to study veterinary science was reinforced during my first work experience at a small animal practice, Vets4Pets. I witnessed several operations, from spays and castrations, to multiple dental procedures and a tumour removal from a Labrador.

A veterinary acupuncturist, Barbara Fougere, offers her view on the ethical standpoint of acupuncture in veterinary care. Although her commentary is a bit bias, coming from a doctor who has chosen to specialize in acupuncture, she offers much support to justify her stance, along with precautionary measures to avoid any harm. She claims acupuncture has been shown to stimulate many pain relieving endorphins and anti-inflammatory hormones into the blood stream and therefore, she feels that it works and should be used when needed. She also lists precautionary measures to be taken by veterinary acupuncturists, including ensuring that the acupuncturist is also a veterinarian and certified under The International Veterinary Acupuncture Society (IVAS), having a prior diagnosis in order to prevent the masking of a more detrimental condition, treating only those pets that do not display extremely anxious, aggressive, or frightened behavior, etc. (Fougere).

I understand the effects of anesthesia and analgesia in an animal. Whether that animal is a dog or monkey, I have educated myself on what to expect and what to do during an emergency. I also understand after surgery care such as confinement, feeding, medications, signs of adverse reactions and pain. I can educate my coworkers on what to look for and alert health care staff in case of an emergency. Recently we had a monkey undergo a procedure to remove a growth. After surgery the monkey recovered well but was not interested in eating. The animal care staff knew this monkey was in pain and alerted the health staff to assess the animal. The analgesics were increased and the monkey seemed to perk up and ate a meal in the afternoon. If the animal care staff were not educated over knowing signs of pain, this monkey would have not had the chance to heal correctly (Thomas, Lerche & McKelvey,

of prostaglandin E2, which lessen the hypothalamic target point to reduce fever, and creating active the descending inhibitory serotonergic pathways to produce analgesia. Even though acetaminophen have similarities with the analgesic and antipyretic properties of other COX inhibitors like the aspirin and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), still it does not possess considerable anti-inflammatory properties. Contrary to aspirin, acetaminophens do not hinder thromboxane and, as such, aggregation of platelet does not change.

COX or cyclo- oxygenase is a type of enzyme that is involved in the formation of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins is a nuisance to our body because it can cause a bunch of things like, inflammation, high body temperature, and pain. This is where the Aspirin come into action; it inhibits COX to prevent the formation of prostaglandins.

Verbal language is not the only means of communication. We can notice a person's emotions without him saying anything because of non-verbal language or body language he expressed. If we can examine body language in human, then we are also able to observe non-verbal language of animals. In accordance to Charles Darwin in his book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, many of the non-verbal reactions of human in expressing emotions are identical with those of animals (Darwin, 1873). Thus, there is no reason that one, especially a scientist who has conducted a lot of experiments with animals, does not know whether an animal is suffering from mental pain or not. As psychological pains caused by animal testing offends the tested animals' welfare, alternative methods must be used to replace animal testing.

Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen belongs to a class of drugs called analgesics (pain relievers) and antipyretics (fever reducers). The exact mechanism of action of acetaminophen is not known. Acetaminophen relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold, that is, by requiring a greater amount of pain to develop before it is felt by a person. It reduces fever through its action on the heat regulating centre of the brain. Specifically, it tells the centre to lower the body’s temperature when the temperature is elevated. Acetaminophen relieves pain in mild arthritis but has no effect on the underlying inflammation, redness, and swelling of the joint.

Throughout my life, I have undergone many dental operations, giving me first hand experience on post-operative pain and it’s management. After being exposed to long term care settings for clinical, I would like to take this opportunity to increase my knowledge on a topic that, besides my own personal experiences, I have not been heavily exposed to in a learning environment. Pain, defined in Kozier et al. (2014) as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage” (p. 739), is inevitable to some degree after surgery; making its management a crucial for a healthy recovery. The recommendations within both the Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario’s (RNAO) (2013) Best Practice Guideline

Given that the researchers are still working with another living organism, implementations for reducing pain included the 3Rs; replacement, reduction and refinement. The goal of the 3Rs is to promote alternative techniques and studies (Festing, Wilkinson, 2007). But replacing a specimen that is undergoing research and testing is more difficult to do; the researchers have to focus on refinement and reduction. Researchers would then also improve the animal’s environment and housing.

Ibuprofen and Acetaminophen are synthetic mixes created to treat a collection of agony conditions. Ibuprofen can be utilized as a torment executioner and lessens irritation. The historical backdrop of ibuprofen can be followed back to 400BC times when Hippocrates utilized the willow leaf tea as a torment reliever for ladies amid labor. In 1763 Revererend Edward Stone uses willow bark to treat rheumatic fever. It wasn't until 1823 when the dynamic fixing, salicin, is separated from willow. The dynamic fixing was likewise found in 1838 by Swiss and German analysts in meadowsweet bloom. French researchers in 1853 makes salicylic corrosive from salicin. In any case, they understood an annoyed stomach is an unanticipated symptom of ingesting salicylic

The contribution of histamine and its receptors in neurogenic inflammation and nociception has been widely demonstrated in preclinical models (Rosa and Fantozzi, 2013). Likewise, there is evidence in clinical studies that some antihistaminic or histamine H1-receptor antagonists such as diphenhydramine or pyrilamine are able to produce analgesia as simple entities (Rumore and Schlichting, 1986; Raffa, 2001; Fujita et al., 2013). A recent study demonstrated that a diphenhydramine ointment exerted a prompt and marked analgesic effect in elderly patients with osteoarthritis and/or osteoporosis who complained of bone-joint-muscle pain (Fujita et al., 2013). However, the use histamine H1-receptor antagonists alone for the relief of clinical pain does not are authorized (Fujita et al., 2013).

Aceclofenac has demonstrated to be potential analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug with same activity that indomethacin and diclofenac, and due to its preferential Cox-2 blockade, it is more safe than traditional Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) regarding to adverse effect on gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems. Aceclofenac has selectivity for Cox-2, what makes it stands among others NAIDs. This favorable Cox inhibitor is well tolerated; it is Gastrointestinal (GI) tolerable and safe for cardiovascular system when compared with other selective Cox-2 inhibitor (Solanki et al, 2015).