Parkinson 's Disease ( Pd )

Parkinson disease (PD) is one of the most common neurologic disorders. and it affects approximately 1% of individuals older than 60 years old. Parkinson’s disease is a condition that progresses slowly by treatment. In addition, loss of pigmented dopaminergic neurons of the substantianigra pars compacta and the presence of Lewy bodies and Lewyneurites are the two major neuropathologic findings in Parkinson disease (Hauser, 2016).

By the time someone shows signs and symptoms of Parkinson 's, Dopamine production in the brain has been reduced by 60 to 80% and is fairly advanced. This results in the most recognizable sign of Parkinson 's disease, the resting tremor of the hand or hands. During deliberate movement, the resting tremor goes away, at first. At rest, the tremor will become exacerbated,

The onset for Parkinson’s disease is progressive and increases as age increases. It commonly develops in patients around the 50 years of age and the prevalence is 4% to 5% in patients older than 85 years of age. Kluwer (2015) Based on the etiology, Parkinson’s disease is considered to be a nonhereditary disorder, however there is evidence that the environmental factors may contribute to some etiologic associations. The associated environmental risk factors include expo¬sure to well water, pesticides, herbicides, industrial chemicals, wood pulp mills, fanning, and rural resi¬dence. Moreover, there is evidence that genetics may play a major factor in Parkinson’s disease. According to Nolden, et al.’s (2014), a gene mutation called alpha-synuclein

Scientists generally agree that most cases of Parkinson’s disease result from some combination of nature and nurture the interaction between a people’s underlying genetic make-up and his or her life activities and environmental exposures. A simple way to describe this is that “genetics loads the gun and environment pulls the trigger.” In this formulation, “environment” has a very broad meaning that is, it refers to any and all possible causes other than those that are genetic in origin. The interactions between genes and environment can be quite complex. Some environmental exposures may lower the risk of PD, while others may increase it. Similarly, some people have inherited a genetic makeup that makes them more or less susceptible to the effects of toxicants, or poisonous agents, than others. The effect of a combined exposure can be greater or lower than a single exposure. All of this means that the particular combination of factors leading to PD is likely to be unique for each person. These combinations, in different ways, may trigger a common series of biological changes that will ultimately lead to the disease. Scientists are beginning to tease apart the non-genetic factors that influence PD risk. In particular, epidemiologists are working to identify differences in the experiences of people who develop PD, compared to those who do not. But identifying these risk factors can be difficult.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by aberrant α-synuclein aggregates within neurons causing damage or neuronal death in different regions of the brain with most disease development occurring in the substantia nigra (NIH.PARK). α-synuclein positive Lewy bodies are another hallmark of PD development (NIH.PARK). Damage or death of neurons leads to a decrease in dopamine production which is required for smooth control of muscle movement (NIH.PARK2, NIH.PARK). Clinically presenting symptoms manifest over time and are characterized by muscle rigidity, tremors and delayed movement however, cognitive changes have also been observed (NIH.PARK2, NIH.PARK). Almost all cases of PD develop sporadically with a small

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a striatal dopamine deficiency disorder as a consequence of neuronal loss in the substania nigra. It is named after James Parkinson, a British apothecary, who first fully documented its physical signs in 1817. Since then, significant advances have been made in our understanding of characteristic pathophysiology as well as in the medical treatment of different stages of PD. An overview of condition features in terms of epidemiology, manifestations, diagnosis and disease management will be discussed in this paper.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder, characterized by symptoms of motor abnormalities such as bradykinesia, resting tremor, and muscle rigidity, along with non-motor symptoms including depression, autonomic dysfunction, and dementia1-3. These motor symptoms are largely due to specific loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, located in the basal ganglia of the brain, although other areas of the brain have also shown degeneration such as the cerebral cortex and brainstem4, 5. In addition, the accumulation of cytoplasmic plaques known as Lewy bodies are also a hallmark of PD. PD can be classified into sporadic as well as familial cases, with sporadic PD representing

Wong, Gilmour and Ramage-Morin (2014) states that Parkinson’s disease comes second on the list of most common degenerative disorder of the nervous system. Dopamine, a substance synthesized in the body, is responsible for the normal movements of the body (Wong, Gilmour and Ramage-Morin, 2014). In Parkinson’s disease, the cells responsible for synthesizing Dopamine are damaged and incapacitated to form it (Wong, Gilmour and Ramage-Morin, 2014). The lower levels of Dopamine result in muscle tremors, sluggish muscle movements, rigidity, impaired reflexes and loss of equilibrium (Wong, Gilmour and Ramage-Morin, 2014). Patient may experience various other

Parkinson’s disease (PD), a degenerative nervous system disorder, is more common every day, yet it is still a mystery on what causes it. More than a million Americans have been diagnosed with PD and every year there are 60,000 new cases. Affecting older people, it is the second most common disorder and the condition is expected to increase as the aging population increases. PD essentially is the loss of dopamine-producing neurons. The increase in research has led to a wide range of possibilities to the causes involving both genetic and environmental factors. There are two different types of symptoms: motor and non-motor.

Parkinson’s disease (PD), is degenerative disease of the brain affects parts of the brain that are associated with normal movement and balance. The mechanism of PD start by the loss of brain cells that produce dopamine in substantia nigra. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter or chemical messenger that carries signals between the neurons in the brain. The etiology of PD is idiopathic, and it is supposed to be due to many factors such as age, genetics, and environmental factors such as pesticides(5).

According to research mitochondria can lead to the development of Parkinson’s disease. Mitochondria are the energy-producing constituents of cell and are the principal sources of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules that harm proteins, membranes, DNA and other parts of the cell. This damage is known as oxidative stress. Changes in brain cells due to oxidative stress such as free radical damage to DNA, fats, proteins have been seen in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical studies are now going on to observe whether factors thought to boost energy metabolism and reduce oxidative stress are helpful in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Recent studies have shown that mutations in genes associated with Parkinson’s disease leads to impairment of mitochondria.

Parkinson 's disease (PD) is the second world 's major neurological disease (Laut & Breteler, 2006) affecting 6 million people globally (Schapira, 1999). PD is a progressive and long term disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) activity with the following traits including bradykinesia, rigorousness, involuntary muscular contraction and unstable postural alignment (O ' Sullivan & Schmitz, 2007). Basal ganglia are located in the CNS have large nerve fibers and neurotransmitters for controlling all types of movement (Ciccone, 2016). The main neurotransmitters of the basal ganglia including substantia nigra which produces dopamine and dopamine normalize the neurons of the basal ganglia (Goodman & Fuller, 2015). The neural activity in PD is the imbalance of the dopamine pathways that conjoined with the substantia nigra to the striatum (Agid, 1991). Michell, (2004); Lang & Obeso (2004) identified that dopamine depletion is also due to an increase degeneration of the neurons of the brain structure with a consequence of changes in conduction to the other neural pathways. Also, there are non- living substance unable to carry out any metabolic benefits ad was unprotected by membranes called Lewy bodies (Michell, 2004; Lang et al., 2004).

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of striatal dopaminergic (DA) terminals and progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars campocta (SNpc) [1]. There is growing evidence suggesting the role of chronic, uncontrolled inflammation in many neuro degenerative disorders[4-7] [1-7] and the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs in altering the course of the disease further supports this idea [8][8]. The inflammation in CNS is mostly the result of innate immune response caused my microglia, cytokines and complement proteins [9][9]. The pathological characteristic of PD is deposits of aggregated α-synuclein in intracellular inclusions, called Lewy bodies [2, 3], which can

Most people think Parkinson’s is just an old person’s disease, but in fact there are 3 types of Parkinson’s and each one affects a different age group. To start and least common of the types is, Juvenile Parkinson’s Disease which happens before the age of twenty one. Next, Young Onset Parkinson’s Disease; this occurs between ages twenty one to forty. This varies depending on where you are in the world. In the U.S., this is not very common. In Japan, it’s a big majority of the people with Parkinson’s. The most common of the types is called Adult-Onset Parkinson’s Disease. Most common age associated with Adult-Onset PD is sixty years old and the chance of getting PD

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which worsen over time. PD is due to loss and degeneration of dopamine neurone in the brain. This neurone is important to make signalling chemical called dopamine which allow us to make normal movement. Cause for this disease is unknown, or basically acknowledged as idiopathic. However, there are