Paroxetine Research Paper

The purpose of this paper is to go into extensive research on Alprazolam aka “Xanax” in the duration of this paper, it will be evident the impact that this drug can have on the human body and in my instances, it will be apparent not only how helpful it can be but how life damaging it can be, if not taken safely and carefully. This report will go into extensive detail on the psychodynamics of the drug as well as the pharmacokinetics. Alprazolam is quite powerful and mind altering the affects that it can have on the body can be very intense, especially if not taking carefully which is why it is vital to make sure that you take the recommended doses taken by your doctor, failure to do so can result in death.

The cerebral cortex directs functions like speech, behavior, reactions, movement, thinking, and learning. In fact, some research suggests that bipolar disorder originates with problems with the thalamus, which links sensory input to good and bad feelings. The hippocampus also affects depression. It, like the amygdala, is part of the limbic system. It is vital in processing long-term memory. This section of the brain registers recurring fear. In people with clinical depression, the hippocampus is much smaller. Research suggests, even, that ongoing exposure to stress impairs the growth of nerve cells in this part of the brain. One of the most important jobs of the brain is to process senses, through neurons. Neurotransmitters are specific substances that help relay information to the brain. Scientists have identified many neurotransmitters that affect depression. A lack or excess of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine, serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, glutamate, lithium carbonate and gamma-aminobutyric acid are thought to contribute to depression. Acetylcholine is involved in learning and enhances memory. Serotonin helps regulate sleep, appetite, and mood, and inhibits pain. Research shows the idea that many depressed people have reduced levels of serotonin. Low levels of a byproduct of serotonin have been linked to a high risk for suicide. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter which constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. An excess in

Some psychiatrists believe that tampering with a child or teens serotonin levels through the use of antidepressants could be detrimental to the child’s well-being and development. Markedly, typical development of natural reactions to occurrences inciting nervousness and unease are thwarted by these drugs. Interestingly, brain development has been found to continue into the mid 20’s and perhaps longer, which

Major depressive disorder is one of the most common mental disorders, with a 12-month prevalence of 6.7% of adults in the United States (NIMH). There is no definite etiology of depression, but several risk factors have been identified. Functional and structural changes in the brain have also been explored. The most common treatment for depression is the use of drugs that act on monoamine transmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Decreases in these transmitters, especially serotonin, were hypothesized to play an important role in the cause of depression (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). The serotonin hypothesis led to the development of selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the amount of serotonin in the brain. Further research suggests that the serotonin hypothesis is not entirely accurate and the neurobiology of depression is much more complex. The “chemical imbalance” explanation of depression may not reflect the full range of causes and may be given greater credibility by patients and doctors than is supported by evidence based research.

The brain chemical serotonin is connected to many body functions such as sleep, wakefulness, eating, sexual activity, impulsivity, learning, and memory. Researchers believe that abnormal

Serotonin is found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system (CNS). Serotonin in the CNS affects learning, appetite, mood, and sleep. In the GI, it is used to control appetite and digestion. A few feelings come as a result of serotonin, such as happiness, relaxation, and security. Low serotonin levels can cause depression, anxiety, and

Arango and Mann are developing a positron emission tomography (PET) test that measures serotonergic system. This system would monitor the areas of the brain using serotonin "in patients who have the most skewed serotonin circuitry – and are therefore at highest risk of suicide". (2)

In this article, antidepressant medication (ADM) is described as the most commonly used treatment for severe depression and cognitive therapy (CT) is the most talked about treatment that could be used for severe depression. Although, some patients do not want to take ADMs daily and CT is still being studied as a treatment option for major depression disorder. There was another alternative therapy treatment that was being questioned, behavioral activation therapy. The primary objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of behavioral activation therapy towards adults with major depression disorder. For this study, behavioral activation was studied with cognitive therapy and antidepressant medications in a placebo controlled randomized

Many clinical studies have been used to suggest a role for serotonin in the propensity for depression or suicidal tendencies. Most of these studies measured the level of serotonin in the CSF in certain individuals. Results established a link between reduced serotonin neurotransmission and aggression, impulsivity, depression, and suicidal tendencies. Other data, using markers in presynaptic and postsynaptic serotonergic neurons have shown that reduction in serotonin neurotransmission is a biochemical "risk factor" for suicide (1).

Nicotine transdermal patch should be applied 21 mg/24h x 6 weeks, 14 mg /24h x 2 weeks, 7mg/24h x2 weeks to a dry, hairless area on upper arms and rotate site. It works to deliver a sustained release of nicotine topically over 24h, and then gradually decrease this to cushion the effects of withdrawal and cravings associated with trying to quit smoking. It is best to remove the patch 2 hours before exercising as it can cause increased nicotine absorption through the skin. [5]

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter in the brain that has an enormous influence over many brain functions. It is synthesized, from the amino acid L-tryptophan, in brain neurons and stored in vesicles. Serotonin is found in three main areas of the body: the intestinal wall; large constricted blood vessels; and the central nervous system. The most widely studied effects have been those on the central nervous system. The functions of serotonin are numerous and appear to involve control of appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature regulation, mood, behavior (including sexual and hallucinogenic behavior), cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, endocrine regulation, and

(3) While successful drug therapies which act on neurotransmitters in the brain imply that depression is a neurobiological condition (4), the fact that such medications do not help about 20 percent of depression-sufferers seems to show that not all depression is due to such imbalances. Rather, depression is not caused by one single factor; it is most often caused by many different things. Genetics, biochemical factors, medicines and alcohol, developmental and other external factors, and relationships, marriage and children all have effect on the development of clinical depression. (5) The strongest hypotheses on the pathways to depression are in decreases in the activity of specific neurotransmitters, or the overactivity of certain hormonal systems. (3)

As the literature remains inconclusive as to the relation between current major treatment modalities and depressive disorder, and given the extremities of the potential dangers of antidepressant medications, it is apparent that there is a need to develop new interventions, which show greater efficacy, safety, and acceptability.

In the study, 180 patients meeting the criterias for severe and major depression were assigned to either one of the treatment methods. Of these, 104 met the response criteria and were included in a 12 month continuation phase and constitute the main focus of the study. Patients who had responded to the therapy were withdrawn and followed up during a 12-month period. Those who had responded to the medication treatment (Paroxetine) were either assigned to a placebo group or a continuation meducation group, with both being followed up for 12 months. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) was used during the entire study, and during the continuation phase relapse was defined as a return of symptoms lasting for at least 2 weeks.

Serotonin: is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found throughout the brain. Several studies have demonstrated that low levels of serotonin have been correlated with aggressive behaviour, specifically in the limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and amygdala. There exist seven families of serotonin 5-HT receptors, (5-HT1 - 5-HT7) and a few families have several subpopulations, however a preliminary literature review indicates that are three main Serotonin receptors implicated in aggression and anger in the OFC: 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT1B .