Pathophysiology Of Brochopulmonary Dysplasia Is Not Yet Completely Eradicated

Bronchiolitis is defined by the textbook as, “a diffuse, inflammatory obstruction in the small airways or bronchioles occurring most commonly in children” (Heuther & McCance, 2012). It is an acute inflammatory disease of the lower respiratory tract that occurs most commonly in infants and is caused by infection with seasonal viruses such as respiratory synctial virus (RSV) (Zorc & Hall, 2010). Bronchiolitis often results from an obstruction of the small airways. It is the leading cause of infant hospitalization in the United States (Zorc & Hall 2010) and is arguably the most common significant medical illness of childhood, with at least “1 in 7 normal infants developing symptomatic bronchiolitis in his or her first year of

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) develops as a result of an infant 's lungs becoming irritated or inflamed. It is considered a chronic lung disease. BPD progresses from respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), usually with atelectasis, consolidation, and massive fibrosis. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is most common in premature infants who needed mechanical ventilation and oxygen therapy to survive. Although life-saving, these treatments can also cause lung damage. BPD has been a severe chronic lung disease in premature infants, going back to 1967. Northway et al described it a lung injury in premature infants and the classic BPD had four stages. Each of the stages has radiographically and pathologically differences.

Premature babies sometimes have apnea. It may happen together with a slow heart rate. Respiratory distress syndrome or RDS is a breathing problem most common in babies born before 34 weeks of pregnancy.” Babies with RDS don’t have a protein called surfactant that keeps small air sacs in the lungs from collapsing. “Intraventricular hemorrhage or IVH is bleeding in the brain. It usually happens near the ventricles in the center of the brain. A ventricles is a space in the brain that’s filled with fluid. Patent ductus ateriosus or PDA is a heart problem that happens in the connection between two major blood vessels near the heart. If the ductus do not close properly after birth, a baby can have breathing problems or heart failure. Heart failure is when enough blood can’t get pumped into the heart causing it to shut down. Necrotizing enter colitis (NEC) is a problem with a baby’s intestines. It causes feeding problems, a swollen belly and diarrhea. It sometimes happens 2 to 3 weeks after a premature bay has been born. Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is an abnormal growth of blood vessels in the eye. ROP can lead to vision loss. Jaundice is when a baby's eyes and skin look yellow. A baby has jaundice when his liver isn't fully developed or isn't working well. Anemia is when a baby doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen to the rest of the body. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a lung condition that can develop in premature babies as well as babies who have treatment with a breathing machine. Babies with BPD sometimes develop fluid in the lungs, scarring and lung damage. Premature babies often have trouble fighting off germs because their immune systems are not fully formed. Infections that may affect a premature baby include pneumonia, a lung infection; sepsis, a blood infection; and meningitis, an infection in the fluid around the brain and

Bronchiolitis is one of those illnesses. The virus most often occurs in children two to twenty-four months of age (Davidson, 2013). It is an illness that spares few, afflicting approximately 95% of children before their second birthday (Davidson, 2013). The virus peaks during the winter months from December through March and accounts for 10% of visits to the primary care provider during the first two years of life (Burns et. al., 2017). It is the leading cause of hospital admissions for infants (Burns et. al., 2017). Bronchiolitis is one of those illnesses every practitioner should confidently know how to manage due to the vast amount of children it afflicts. The AAP released a clinical practice guideline in October 2014.Familiarity with this guideline is essential to effective

The list of proposed chronic abnormalities is lengthy. To this date, research has confirmed the following: 1) SIDS is due to a dysfunction of the cardiac and/or respiratory systems, and 2) the death of the infant is due to hypo-ventilation of the lungs and periods of complete cessation of breathing or apnea. Hypo-ventilation and apnea cause hypo-perfusion of the tissues with necessary oxygen. Ischemia of tissues results and eventually causes death. Research now centers around discovering the cause of infant hypo-ventilation and apnea.

The World Health Organization (WHO) (2006A) defines COPD as a disease state characterized by airflow limitation that is not wholly reversible. The airflow limitation is usually both progressive and associated with abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles or gases. John's chronic bronchitis is defined, clinically, as the presence of a chronic productive cough for 3 months in each of 2 successive years, provided other causes of chronic cough have been ruled out. (Mannino, 2003). The British lung Foundation (BLF) (2005) announces that chronic bronchitis is the inflammation and eventual scarring of the lining of the bronchial tubes which is the explanation for John's dyspnea. The BLF (2005) believe that when the bronchi become inflamed less air is able to flow to and from the lungs and once the bronchial tubes have been irritated over a long period of time, excessive mucus is produced. This increased sputum results from an increase in the size and number of goblet cells (Jeffery, 2001) resulting in John's excessive mucus production. The lining of the bronchial tubes becomes thickened and an irritating cough develops, (Waugh & Grant 2004) which is an additional symptoms that john is experiencing.

in a study of 152 patients from 49 families in 1999 first described the presence of pulmonary cysts in BHD patients (Toro et al. 1999). Most of BHD patients are likely to develop pulmonary cysts and are susceptible to recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax. The study of 50 BHD families showed 88% of the families developed pulmonary cysts and 53% of the families had a history of pneumothorax. In another study, Toro et al. reported a 93% pulmonary cyst presence in BHD patients (Toro et al. 2007)(Toro et al. 2008). Pulmonary cysts are the most common BHD manifestation, seen in up to 90 % of patients (Predina et al. 2011). It has been suggested that the number of pulmonary cysts correlates with episodes of spontaneous pneumothoraces. Zbar et al. identified an increase in the risk of pneumothorax for BHD-affected individuals, which they postulated to be due to the presence of pulmonary cysts (Zbar et al.

Chronic bronchitis is a long-term disease that keeps coming back or never goes away completely, it stay in the patient airway and lungs for at least for 3 months a year, at least 2 years a row. Chronic bronchitis is a obstructive disease that is happens when the lining of the bronchial tubes are irritated that may produces too much mucus. Repeatedly breathing in the things that irritate and damage lung and airway tissues causes chronic bronchitis. Smoking is the main cause of chronic bronchitis and there are some symptom that people are not aware of. “Smoker’s cough” one of the term use to patient who has chronic bronchitis. Blue bloater are one of the symptoms and characteristic of having chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis can lead to

The neonatal ARDS disease processes result in lung pathophysiology associated with pulmonary hypertension and poor oxygenation. Conventional mechanical ventilation, surfactant administration, and nitric oxide administrations are the first modalities used in order to increase the tissue perfusion and respiratory insufficiency. When these interventions fail, ECMO will allow for lower ventilator settings, preventing lung injury caused by the ventilator.

Respiratory distress syndrome – “an acute lung disease present at birth, which usually affects premature babies. Layers of tissue called hyaline membranes keep the oxygen that is breathed in from passing into the blood. The lungs are said to be ‘airless’.” (https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/respiratory+distress+syndrome)

Nitric Oxide is a vasodilator that not only decreases inflammation but also improves ventilation. The improvement of ventilation leads to normal lung growth patterns due to the increased perfusion of tissues. Vitamin A is an essential vitamin that helps with the integrity of the immune system, growth and growth of cells in the airway. The lack of vitamin A found in premature infants, reduces the number of cilia, these are finger like projections, which line the airway and help aid in the movement of secretions. The lack of cilia in the airway may result in the inability to mobilize secretions, so if vitamin A is given about three times a week to infants who are at risk, it has been shown to decrease the incidence of BPD (Deakins, p. 1260). And last, but definitely not least, nutrition is very important to an infant with BPD. An infant with BPD is burning a lot of calories and using a lot of energy to meet the increased metabolic rate and the increase in oxygen consumption. BPD energy requirements succeed standard infant caloric requirements by as much as 125% (Deakins, p. 1260). So, it is very important that the infant receives the proper amount of nutrition, with all the right vitamins and minerals as well as calories to maintain an equal

Bronchiolitis obliterans is a disease that causes destruction and scarring of the small airways of the lungs. As the scarring and hardening of the lungs gets worse, it becomes harder to breathe.

The ultimate goal in neonatal healthcare is not to simply “save babies,” but to improve the quality of life for the infant and parent. The child is being treated, but the family must live with the long-term consequences of the daily decisions made in caring for the baby. The two main issues in this decision making process include the stake of survival and the future quality of life. Even the smallest decisions, such as mode of ventilation or environment the baby is kept, can and will affect the infant’s transition to normal. The most famous case of neonatal decision-making involves a baby born in 1982. He was born with Down’s syndrome and a tracheoesophageal fistula, or abnormal connection between the upper parts of the esophagus and windpipe.

My aim is to discover whether premature babies are more likely to be born with particular chronic diseases. I will also will exploring the relationship between the particular stages of premature birth and bronchopulmonary dysplasia, a chronic lung disease. I am interested in this because my cousin was born premature and also developed a lung disease.

Preterm infants are born during the late cannalicular to early saccular stages of lung development, which corresponds to the period when respiratory bronchioles capable for gas exchange and type II alveolar