Pharmacogenetics To Personalized Medicine Essay

Personalized medicine is characterized by decision making that takes into account and that is specific to patient personal history, family history, social and environmental factors, along with genomic data and patient preferences regarding their own care (ch 25). In this approach, clinical decision making is explicitly patient-centered in new ways, bringing the best evidence at the genetic level to bear on many clinical scenarios, while incorporating patient preferences for acquiring and applying genetic information (Fargher et al. 2007). Personalized genetic medicine (Chan and Ginsburg 2011) is already generating data that outstrip the information and knowledge processing capabilities of practitioners, and many clinicians feel threatened by the impending tsunami of additional knowledge that they will need to master (Baara et al. 2005). As personalized medicine becomes the norm, primary-care and specialist practitioners alike will need to manage their patients by interpreting genomic tests along with myriad other data at the point of care. It is hard to imagine how clinicians will manage to

It is patients’ right to opt for genetic testing on their own DNA, although they are accepting a great risk by doing so.

According to Chrystoja and Diamandis (2013), targeted genome testing is less costly than some traditional testing methods, is effective in assisting decision making for certain neoplastic medications and is useful in guiding the proper testing for certain diseases such as Lynch Syndrome. In addition, genetic makeup determines the pharmacokinetics of certain drugs and genome testing may assist in medication therapies. Studies indicate that genetic predisposition determines the effectiveness of 20% to 95% of prescribed medications (Bartlett, 2011). With DNA information, a physician can prescribe a tailored medication treatment that will benefit the

Personalized medicine is one of the emerging field for CNS biomarker due to rising its application as diagnostic tool which assist in to recognize the precise biological markers. The personalized medicine also assists to identify the genetics which helps in performing medical procedures and treatment that is suitable for individual patient. Research institutes & centres and companies are using CNS information to innovate more efficient nerve disease programs. Oncology is one of the key area in which the development and application of personalized medicine due to rising prevalence of cancer across the globe.

Genetic Testing carries a particular set of ethical, legal, or social implications, depending on the reasoning behind the testing. For example is the test for medical purposes, diagnostic, or predictive with a treatment? Or is the testing done for personal decision-making reasons? That is, predictive without a treatment, carrier, or prenatal? In any circumstance, privacy and confidentiality are critical because the genetic results are directly related to an individual’s identity. Not only is confidentiality an issue for health care, but to prevent genetic discrimination in insurance coverage and employment, as well. Information from a genetic test can affect an entire family. If the disorder is either genetically dominant or carried by an individual,

Today we have more knowledge and awareness than ever of the genetic variants driving most diseases, such as cancer, asthma and heart disease (Fagan, 2016). This knowledge is resulting in a move to a more personalised approach (2016) to healthcare. The shift to personalised medicine and healthcare will likely have a significant impact on the modern pharmaceutical industry.

The article entitled “Need for Regulation of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing in the United States: Assessing and Applying the German Policy Model” explained why the government should intervene and why consumer education is important. For in the article it stated, genetic testing are able to discover what genes are at risk of an health

One area in which personal genomics is becoming particularly useful is in pharmacogenomics. The genetic information from an individual can be used to select the most suitable drug and dose to prescribe to a patient. This allows doctors to ensure that the drug has the maximum effect while minimizing serious adverse side effects. Personal genomics can also be used to predict or confirm a genetic disease. This gives individuals the opportunity to take preventative steps. This is important because the more we know about our individual genomes and disease risk the more easily we will be able to take lifestyle choices that reduce the probability of developing these diseases, or delay their

The new advancements in genetics spark a new revolution in medicine. Genetic information not only can help us better understand the diseases that plague us, but can also prevent diseases that could potentially be harmful to us. However America’s history of discrimination has taken over this new revolution also. Despite our revolutionized and civilized culture, America still suffers the cruel grip of evil that lies behind many legal documents and contracts. Genetic Discrimination is when people are treated differently by their employer or insurance company because they have or are perceived to have a gene mutation that causes or increases the risk of an inherited disorder. Although insurance companies and many employers are looking out for their companies genetically discriminating against clients or employees promotes the public’s weariness about the revolutionized genetic tests and also discourages further medical research.

The first issue about genetic testing is the discrimination that can come out from your results that all questions that people have are to understand if they should really beginning their tested” because information about individuals Health can be used to discriminate against them the Privacy provisions of u.s. health insurance portability and Accountability Act of 1996( HIPAA) was revised in 2003 to create a category of protected health information that can be used or disclosed only under certain conditions (Nature). Genetic discrimination occurs if people are treated unfairly because of differences in the DNA that can increase their chances of getting a certain disease. “An example of genetic discrimination in the workplace occurred in 2000 at the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad Company employees who file claims and sought medical attention for carpal tunnel syndrome or required to submit blood samples”( Fulda). Concerns about genetic testing and genetic discrimination became a big issue in the late 1990’s even though we have laws that make an act discrimination illegal people still have worries about their genetic information being used illegally(). “Genomic can enable the misuse and abuse of our most personal information”( Nature). Given the prevalence of genetic mutations, any one of us could have a predisposition for a genetic disorder. The availability of genetic tests for some of these predispositions has clear benefits for treatment and prevention

The question being posed “Is there a benefit to having pharmacogenomics medical service in community pharmacy?” The term pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics is frequently used interchangeable, though there are subtle variances. Pharmacogenomics offers an opportunity to individualize drug therapy in order to maximize efficacy and reduce toxicity according to the patient’s genetic data. In pharmacy practice, individualized drug therapy is regarded as an important feature. Even when a drug is considered to be effective, thus the optimal dose would differ between patients. 1

The field of pharmacogenomics is concerned with how an individual’s genetic makeup affects their response to a drug (Johnson, 2001; US National Library of Medicine, 2016). The purpose of the resulting information is to successfully treat more patients, using a personalised approach to medicine (Xie and Frueh, 2005). Controversy was triggered when in 2005; a drug called BiDil was approved in the United States for the treatment of congestive heart failure in self-identified “black” patients. The consensus amongst geneticists is that race is largely a social construct (Kaplan, 2011) and globally, race is a way of categorising people by a small group of physical, social, or perceived ancestral characteristics (UNESCO, 1950). Racial discrimination is defined as one person being treated less favourably than another based on perceived inferiority due to their skin colour, race, ethnic background, or migrant status (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2014) - in direct contradiction to the World Medical Association’s Declaration where doctors swear to “not permit ... ethnic origin, ... nationality, ... race, ... or any other factor to intervene between my duty and my patient” (World Medical Association, 2006). Many legal checks are in place to prevent racial discrimination in medical treatment, which begs the question; how was a race-based drug approved?

The idea that human beings are as different to one another as they are alike is not new and these differences are related to the genetic make-up of each individual. Because all human beings are not identical, one can safely assume that medications that treat a particular illness for one person can have a totally different effect on another. To support this theory, the article What You Need To Know About Pharmacogenomics, written by Dennis Cheek discusses a growing area of research known as pharmacogenomics where medications are being tailored based on patient’ genetic make-up. The main goal of pharmacogenomics is to help health care providers improve patients’ outcome with medications that are tailored to patients based on their genetic make-up. The main areas of pharmacogenomics include antiplatelet therapy, mental health, HIV therapy, and oncology (Cheek, 2013).

Advancements such as genomics, along with other biological technologies, allows for patients to be treated more accurately, effectively, and in ways that better meet an individual’s needs. (2013)Which leads us on to Individualized medicine, this modern medical phenomenon is the tailoring of medical treatment specifically to a patient. There still might be a bit of controversy with the advantages and disadvantages of it, but the ability to provide more accurate treatments along with an early diagnosis in diseases such as cancer, and Pharmacogenomics are essential for human development.

The decoding of the human genome will allow pharmaceutical companies to develop new drugs that act on the mechanism of the disease and identify susceptible genes (to diseases, like the common cold) for early detection and prevention. Furthermore, this information will allow pharmaceutical companies to identify from a certain individuals' genetic make up if they are likely to react adversely to a particular drug. It will also allow the companies to identify people who would benefit from particular drug treatments. The last two areas are important in the field of pharmacogenetics, this is the tailoring of drug treatment to the genetic make-up of the patient while maximising the drug efficiency and minimizing the possible side-effects. Before any information on the human genome sequence was available, when individuals didn't respond well to prescribed drugs the drug was blamed.