Pharmacology Of Pain Essay

There are many various kinds of prescription of pain relievers, which include: opioids, corticosteroids, antidepressants and anticonvulsants (anti-seizure medications). Among them I would like to focus on opioid medications and its side effects. Opioid medications are narcotic pain medications that contain natural poppy plant, synthetic opiates such as; methadone, fentanyl, tapentadol and tramadol, as well as the semi- synthetic opioids such as; oxycodone, hydrocodone, oxymorphone, hydromorphone and heroin. Opioid prescriptions are morphine (C17H19NO3), heroin (C21H23NO5), codeine (C18H21NO3) and thebaine (C19H21NO3). They are highly addictive substances are called opiates. Opioid medications have been used for hundreds and thousands of years to treat both pain and mental health problems. It is also use in a short-term pain after surgery. According to the survey in the past two decades, the prescription of opioid in the United States has been increased to the higher levels that is more than 600% (Paulozzi & Baldwin, 2012). However, that opioid medications are very dangerous to the patients’ respiratory system, other parts of the internal body and even can cause death. It should be only being use after wise discernment and with a great care.

The authors of the article each come with their own perepectives on pain management in the cognitively impaired older adult.

The discovery of endocannabinoids led to the identification of an entire system in the human body, comprised of lipids, receptors, and enzymes. The endocannabinoid system is responsible for a host of physiological processes that rely on the interactivity of cannabinoids and their receptors. Since their discovery and cloning in the early ‘90s, the CB1 and CB2 receptors are still the only receptors that have been identified in the endocannabinoid system. The location of a

In their article, The problem of pain management: The makers of OxyContin play dirty, from the January 2015 edition of Harper’s magazine, Jonah Campbell and Simon Liem annotate a letter of request from Purdue Pharmaceutical to the Federal Drug Administration. Campbell, who is a research assistant at the McGill University Biomedical Ethics Unit and author of the book Food and Trembling, and Liem, a journalist, argue that Purdue Pharmaceuticals intentions with the letter of withdrawal are only to benefit themselves as a company and that Purdue’s drug formulation of OxyContin does not deter abuse, but the authors fail to back up several of their claims.

When it comes to pain, everyone experiences pain differently. Pain is not just one dimensional, it is multidimensional. Some might experience pain better than others and some might experience pain worse than others. There are many different factors that one might have that make them respond to pain a certain way. Some these factors include genetics, age, gender, religion, previous experiences, patients perceptions, and expectations. Just to name a few.

There are many analgesic drugs. Among those the oxycodone is the most pain reliever of opioid analgesic drug. Oxycodone is classified as schedule II controlled substance. It is commonly combined in tablets with acetaminophen (Percocet) and with aspirin (Percodan). Oxycodone is available in the form of immediate-release (Oxy IR) and sustained- release (OxyContin). It is a strong pain reliever often used to control moderate to severe pain, postoperative, acute, and chronic pain. Oxycodone is classified pharmacologically as a class of opioid agonists, and opioid synthetic while, therapeutic classification oxycodone is opioid analgesics, and Pregnancy category B. Oxycodone. The opioid analgesic drugs are originated from the

Many theories have been suggested for clinical presentation of pain such as Cartesian module of pain in the 17th century and the 19th century specificity theory of pain. The 20th century central summation, sensory interaction, gate control, and biopsychosocial theories show deferent concepts from the simpler cause and effect approaches that essential in the Cartesian model and specificity theory. Traditionally within physiotherapy and medicine the medical/disease model has been suggested. Medical/Disease model acts on the basis that all pain has a dominant tissue or structural source. This model is founded on the Cartesian model and specificity theory of pain where pain is considered as sign of tissue injury and damage (Waddell, 2004)

Pain in the central nervous system is a complex process that has been studied by many researchers. Pain is controlled by certain pathways in the CNS. One of these paths is descending serotonergic system (Millan, 2002). This route originated from the nucleus raphe Magnus (NRM). The main function of the NRM is mostly pain mediation; in fact it sends projections to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord to directly inhibit pain (Haines et al., 2013).

For centuries, the active components (i.e. cannabinoids) of Cannabis sativa (the “marijuana” plant) have been used for medicinal and recreational purposes, primarily due to their ability to regulate various neurobehavioral processes such as memory and cognition, mood, appetite, and sleep [1]. Cannabinoids are highly lipophilic molecules and can be classified as either exogenous, those extracted from the Cannabis sativa plant or synthetically made in the laboratory, or endogenous (Figure 1). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most studied exogenous cannabinoids. Δ9-THC, which was isolated in 1964, is the major psychoactive and immunoregulatory component in marijuana and has a characteristic of being immunosuppressive on immune cells at peripheral sites and within the central nervous system (CNS). There have also been synthetic exogenous cannabinoids widely used in research that include CP55940, WIN55212-2, SR141716A, and SR144528. Endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids) are found natively in vertebrate systems.

Albeit a huge discomfort without it we could be in danger, an example of this being when we teach our children not to touch things that are hot, There are people in the world that are born with a defect where they are unable to feel pain at all, this is known as (CIPA) congenital insensitivity to pain and falls under the category of (HSAN) disorders, meaning Hereditary Sensory Autonomic Neuropathy. The peoples

In vitro: SR 144528 displayed subnanomolar affinity for both the rat spleen and cloned human CB2 receptors and had a 700-fold lower affinity for both the rat brain and cloned human CB1 receptors. Moreover, SR 144528 showed no affinity for more than 70 receptors, ion channels or enzymes tested. SR 144528 could antagonize the inhibitory effects of the cannabinoid receptor agonist CP 55,940 on forskolin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity in cell

2-Arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), an endogenous agonist of the central cannabinoid and peripheral cannabinoid receptors, is present with high levels in the central nervous system and is the most abundant molecular species of monoacylglycerol found brain. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) has been identified to hydrolyze 2-AG to arachidonic acid and glycerol, thereby terminating its biological actions.

The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage” (1979). Pain is actually the culprit behind warranting a visit to a physician office for many people (Besson, 1999). Notoriously unpleasant, pain could also pose a threat as both a psychological and economic burden (Phillips, 2006). Sometimes pain does happen without any damage of tissue or any likely diseased state. The reasons for such pain are poorly understood and the term used to describe such type of pain is “psychogenic pain”. Also, the loss of productivity and daily activity due to pain is also significant. Pain engulfs a trillion dollars of GDP for lost work time and disability payments (Melnikova, 2010). Untreated pain not only impacts a person suffering from pain but also impacts their whole family. A person’s quality of life is negatively impacted by pain and it diminishes their ability to concentrate, work, exercise, socialize, perform daily routines, and sleep. All of these negative impacts ultimately lead to much more severe behavioral effects such as depression, aggression, mood alterations, isolation, and loss of self-esteem, which pose a great threat to human society.

These pain relievers are small polypeptide chains made in the brain and are also responsible for the feelings of euphoria encountered when you eat spicy food or after exercise. Opioid drugs mimic the action of these peptide chains, however some enkephalins are a thousand times as effective as drugs such as morphine. Because of this, chemists are trying to synthesise new drugs based on the enkephalins but their duration of analgesic action is short as they can be easily hydrolysed in the body by the enzyme peptidase2.3,10.

Walking towards the entrance of the museum, a Jazz singer sings the tunes of the Harlem Renaissance, signifying political figures’ strengths and empowerment for communities to commemorate. Countee Cullen contributes a fourth note to the paradigm for future generations to employ as an prominent source. Continuing forward into the facility, an exhibits secures pictures of a male, ranging from a newborn to a man in a suit. Sharon Olds mourns a mature son in the last picture. Stepping into the final exhibit, feathers crowd the floor and walls, wailing chaos from all perspectives. What do these timeframes all have in common? Pain. The burning and longing sensation arises from poetically speaking about society’s unjust ways based on the color delicately placed on a person’s body. Another sensation of pain stems from memories tied to one’s own son peaking at the age of maturity. Now, the last painful sensation announces indignance with the everlasting touch of abusive power. The allusions in “Yet Do I Marvel” by Countee Cullen, “My Son the Man” by Sharon Olds, and “Leda and the Swan” by William Butler Yeats revive the sensation of pain into a deeper and more contorting level. The poets’ backgrounds present logic for the endearing effects they create as each stanza communicates a message associated with the torturous feeling.