Phylogenetic Tree C

Afropithecus is a fairly large extinct ape- 50kg, characterized by a lack of a prehensile tail, long snout with procumbent incisors, generalized limb proportions and thick molar enamel. The braincase of Afropithecus is fairly small in size compared to other Miocene apes and Old World Monkeys from the same area. The primitive characteristics of Afropithecus suggest a relation to early catarrhines- such as Aegyptopithecus. And the post-cranial fossil record suggest that it was both arboreal and quadrupedal, similar to the proconsul that Afropithecus is categorized

This article shows how Paleoanthropologist David Lordkipanidze and his group of archeologist discovered a 1.8 million-year-old skull fossil that could lead to knowing more about the earliest known ancestors of humans that ventured outside of Africa. Lordkipanidze’s excavation in the Georgia site known as Dmanisi. With this archeology find, it has been concluded that all early fossil humans belong to the same species known as Homo erectus. The article explains that the Dmanisi hominins had brains less than half the size of a modern human’s, and are key to understand the evolution and expansion these ancestors experienced from Africa to Eurasia. Genetic studies indicate that their expansion began from Africa about 1.9 million years ago. The article also mentions that with these new findings there can be a better ground from where to start to understand these ancestors as how they lived and socialized. Lordkipanidze does mention that the Dmanisi “were very primitive, we think there were social groups that connected with each other and learned from each other”.

The main component of human evolution involves change. Because of the significant differences between each of the hominids and the ancestors of the chimpanzee determined by the categories of muzzle angle, Position of forearm Magnum, cranial capacity and finally the brain size to body weight ratio, provides exclusive data that the evolution of each of the species changed constantly over time. The phylogeny above was determined based on the data collected using the aspects above as the sole evidence on this subject matter. The time period in which they lived (refer to

Three recent fossil findings believed to be hominin ancestors have been selected for description and any controversy surrounding their discovery will be discussed. The three fossils are: Homo floresiensis, Homo rudolfensis and Kenyanthropus

This in turn allowed them to consider the context of differing abilities to cope with fluctuating resources, different variables, and overall paths in brain development between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (AMHs). Although Neanderthals did share similar brain sizes comparable to anatomically modern humans (AMHs), nevertheless Neanderthals brain cases were elongated and not globular as in Homo Sapiens implying that anatomically modern humans (AMHs) and Neanderthals reached fairly large brain sizes along dissimilar evolutionary paths. In their underlying research, they hypothesize that similarly sized brains of both Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (AMHs) were ostensibly organized differently for two

Superficially, anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals have much in common. Current data suggest Neanderthals had language, religion, and shared select genes with Homo-sapiens. The standing question is whether or not these similarities are a product of gene flow. This paper will be an extensive overview of the most substantial evidence that proves or disproves any genetic and anatomical relationships between anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals.

“The Evolution of Cranial Form in Mid-Pleistocene” by Philip Rightmire enlightens his readers with comprehensive research about the evolution of the cranial in Mid-Pleistocene. Philip Rightmire conducted a research based on the evolution of the cranial and how it has changed over time due to brain size increasing. Rightmire explained in great detail the differences between brain size and face structures and what all of these had to do with modern humans.

If the Homo erectus, Homo Neanderthals and Homo sapiens were different from each other then they would have the same cranial traits but they would be significantly different from each other. The traits that would tell the difference between each other from the cranial traits would be the Skull case, Zygomatic, Brow ridge and lastly Sagittal keel. I predicted for the Skull case for the Homo erectus would be the smallest box line, for the skull case for the Homo Neanderthal would be the largest skull while the Homo sapiens skull case would be round. I predicted for the Zygomatic for the Homo erectus would have a medium sized cheek, for the zygomatic for the Homo Neanderthal would have a thickest and largest cheek out of all of them, and lastly

The purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the current results of testing of Neanderthal fossils. By providing a comparison analysis of Homo sapiens to Homo neanderthalensis we can see the fundamental differences as well as the advances of our evolution. By starting from the macro level and working toward the micro level we can see how sciences views of these creatures have evolved as well. The advances in scientific technology and ever expanding database of knowledge have revised conclusions to old theories. By the end of this scientific journey many readers will find out that Neanderthals are still alive today living in their genetic code

The first Neanderthal fossils found in Europe, a fragmented child’s cranium in Belgium in 1830, and an adult cranium in Gibraltar, were not immediately recognized as a divergent kind of human. Only in 1856 after a partial skeleton was found in a cave in the Neander Valley in Germany it became clear that these fossils belonged to an extinct human and our closest evolutionary relative (Hublin and Pääbo, 2006). Since then, questions about their relationship with modern humans have been fiercely debated between anthropologists. But what attracts most interest from scientists and popular media is the possibility of hybridization between Neanderthals and modern humans if, in other words, they were a genetically different specie or a

The origins of anatomically and behaviorally modern humans is a prominent debate amongst paleoanthropologists. Ultimately, the two main ideas hypothesizing the origins of modern H. Sapiens are the Multiregional Hypothesis and the Out-of-Africa Hypothesis. The former states that all modern humans evolved from the H. Erectus that had once

Archaic humans were not replaced by anatomically modern humans, instead there was gene flow between Africa, Asia and Europe which resulted in evolution of modern humans from local populations. Consequently Neanderthals and Asian Homo erectus did contribute to the modern human genotype. This model also shows that after the dispersal there was some gene flow between geographically separated populations which prevented speciation, that all living humans derive from Homo erectus which left Africa 2 million years ago, that natural selection is responsible for regional variants and that the emergence of Homo sapiens was a phenomenon which occurred everywhere that humans lived. Ref 2,10,11,12,13,14,15,16 plus general uni book OUTLINE OF SINGLE RECENT HYPOTHESIS

The next species to appear were the Homo erectus which might have descended from Homo habilis. They were the first human whose fossils were found outside of Africa. They also had larger brain than the species before them. Homo sapiens sapiens came after the Homo Neanderthalensis; they are the only human species around. This could have been due to the result of increase brain sizes that allows more cognitive abilities that help them adapt to different environment changes and hence survive. Global evidence have been found of art, music, and culture and advanced tool making. In Mithen’s 3 phase of mind proposes that the shape of the Neanderthals’ frontal lobe was similar to the one of the modern Homo sapiens and this indicated that they were able to cope with complex cognitive functioning. Evidence for this could be explained using the phonological approach by Frank Gall (1758-1828).

Hominids with a brain absolutely and relatively larger than that of the australopithecines appeared about 2.3 million years ago. These hominids are classified in our own genus: Homo. The earliest species to appear was the Homo Habilis. It was the first of our ancestors to show a significant increase in brain size and also the first to be found associated with stone tools. These characteristics resulted in this species’ placement into the human genus, Homo.

Homo erectus, the “upright man”, was one of the first human ancestors to posses human like body proportions. This hominid had long legs and shorter arms, suggesting that this hominid was our first ancestor with the ability to run like Homo sapiens can today (Smithsonian). While it is clear that Homo erectus is one of the earliest human ancestors to posses similar human features, it is unclear and a controversial topic to classify this early hominid. One reason for this is that “…the cranium (skull minus lower jaw)—e.g., large teeth, sagittal keels (narrow areas of thickened bone extending from just behind the brows to the back of the skull) and massiveness of the neurocranium (the part of the skull that covers and protects the brain) and face—are found only in Asian H. erectus fossils” (Dorey). Some scientists assert skeletons found in Asia look very