Physiology/281 Week 1

They are all polymers made during dehydration synthesis reactions from monomers. These reactions result in the loss of water forming strong covalent bonds. They are referred to as endergonic reactions since they require an input of energy. Hydrolytic reactions are the opposite as they break polymers into single unit monomers using water and in the process releasing energy thus referred to as exergonic reactions (Gorrod, 1985). The monomer form of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide e.g. glucose (used for energy in cells), fructose and ribose. When two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration synthesis reaction they form a disaccharide e.g. sucrose, which is a combination of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is used for transport in plants. Polysaccharides consist of three or more covalently bonded monosaccharides. Starch and glycogen are good examples and are both used in energy storage in plants and animals respectively. Monomers of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol while amino acids are monomers of proteins. Amino acids mainly function to regulate different cell functions as well as catalyze various cell reactions. Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids and they function in storing the genetic information of a cell (DNA) and synthesis of proteins (RNA). All these monomers undergo dehydration synthesis reactions to form their corresponding polymers and are used in

Monosaccharides are single sugars and are sweet tasting soluble substances such as glucose and fructose which are the building blocks for all carbohydrates. They are used as energy in respiration by being broken down in to carbon dioxide and water. ATP, an immediate energy source, is released during the glycolysis and the

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down plant starches into simple sugars like glucose. There are many types of amylase, but the one found in humans’ saliva is alpha-amylase. Alpha-amylase breaks up polysaccharide bonds within the starch molecules - by using water - in order to reduce them to glucose. This breaking up is called hydrolysis. The alpha-amylase

(Driskell 29) These simple carbohydrates are easily broken down, converted into glucose for the body and easily flow into the blood stream. The downside to this form of carbohydrates is that they are most common in the form of refined sugars or refined flours which retain very few vitamins after being processed. (“HealthStyle Fitness”) As the body uses this form of glucose a cycle begins which involves fluctuations of high and low blood sugar. This cycle works when blood sugar rises after the consumption of simple carbs and then as the blood sugar begins to drop the body demands more simple carbs to bring blood sugar levels back to up. The cycle that is formed essentially keeps the body from burning body fat because there is a continuous demand and consumption of simple carbohydrates. The second form of carbohydrates is that of complex carbohydrates which consist of polysaccharides, three or more monosaccharides. These complex carbs are found in the form of starch, fiber and glycogen (animal starch). Those complex carbohydrates consumed in the form of starch are found in plant foods like corn, wheat, potatoes, cereals, pastas, and beans. When they are broken down these carbs allow for the slow production and release of glucose into the blood stream and allowing for a consistent blood sugar level. (Guthrie 27) Dietary fiber is another form of complex carbs which are present in plant foods because fiber is

A monosaccharide is a carbohydrate that doesn’t hydrolize. A disaccharide is a group of that yield monosaccharides on hydrolosis. Lastly, polysaccharide is a carbohydrate that contains more than three monosaccharide units per molecule.

1) Amylase is utilized to break down starch molecules into more simple sugars for use by the body. It performs this function by hydrolyzing glycosidic linkages in the polysaccharide chain.

Cellular respiration is the series of metabolic process by which living cells produce energy through the oxidation of organic substances. Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Fermentation is the process by which complex organic compounds such as glucose, are broken down by the action of enzymes into simpler compounds without the use of oxygen. The significance of these pathways for organisms is to allow for an organism to be able to generate ATP. Some organism that undergo cellular respiration are bacteria and fungi. Some organism that undergo fermentation are yeast and muscle cells. In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized and releases energy. In cellular respiration, glucose produces ATP and 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. The pyruvate is then further broken down in the mitochondria where it becomes oxidized and releases CO2 (Upadhyaya 2014). In the fermentation process oxygen does not play a part. This process converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. From there pyruvate breaks down into CO2 and acetaldehyde (Upadhyaya 2014) Monosaccharides are known as simple sugars and their main function is being the source of energy for organisms. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond and their primary function is to provide food to monosaccharides. Some disaccharides

We hypothesize that sucrose would have the highest respiration rate due to the fact that it is a disaccharide containing glucose and fructose, a combination of two sugar sources. The more sugar the S. cerevisiae is fed, the more CO₂ will be produced.

If I was a director of a program that supported low-income families, and there were 97 families that applied and I could only accept 35 families, I would do a lot of pre-screening to determine who the 35 families would be. First, I would review everyone’s application. It would be beneficial for me to have another person reviewing the applications as well, because sometimes certain things can be overlooked. In general, it is good to have a second pair of eyes to catch things. I am not sure what information would all be on the application, but I would be looking for families who have a great need for housing in that moment. For example, if there were families living on the streets—I would give them top priority over

16a. A water molecule gets added to a disaccharide to split it into two monosaccharides.

Define equilibrium potential: Equilibrium channels can be calculated using the Nernst Equation and the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation. Equilibrium potentials are membrane potentials when an ion does not diffuse through the membrane. It is also associated with potassium leaving the cell through leak channels.

This experiment consisted of setting up a control group of starch in various temperature and then placing both fungal amylases and bacterial amylases in a mixture of starch and placing the solution of amylase and starch in various temperatures of water. After a certain amount of time- different amount of time needs to be used in order to have reliable results- iodine is added in a well on spot plates, then two drops of the mixture of amylase-starch is added from each temperature used, by adding iodine into the plates the mixture will show how much starch was hydrolyzed, this is used to calculate the amount of

To test enzyme activity, an experiment was conducted in the laboratory. In this experiment, the enzyme Amylase was chosen because it assists disassemble the polysaccharide starch. Starch is the main energy storage in plants. Human cells need the energy of stored in the starch to be introduced in the form of Maltose. Maltose is a simple sugar that can be used to generate the energy needed to power cellular work

The first part of the breakdown of glucose is known as Glycolysis, in which one molecule of glucose is broken down to two molecules of pyruvate (C3H4O3). The second part is the fermentation process in which the two pyruvate molecules are converted to two molecules of ethanol and two molecules of carbon dioxide.

Amylase is an enzyme which catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch into carbohydrates. These enzymes are classified into alpha amylases, beta amylases and gamma amylases based on the type of bonding present in the structure. Every amylase is a glucoside hydrolase and acts on α-1,4-glycoside bonds. It comprises about 25 % of enzyme industry due to its wide range of uses. α-amylase are calcium containing enzymes which helps in hydrolyses of α-1,4 glyosidic linkages present in starch of low molecular weight compounds such as glucose, Maltose etc. These enzymes are present in microorganisms, plants, humans and other mammals. In humans it is present in pancreatic juice and saliva.