Polyploids Research Paper

C-Fern plants are a strain of Ceratopteris richardii and have a rapid reproductive cycle, making them perfect subjects in lab to be tested and observed on population genetics. Population genetics is the study of genetic variation and allelic frequencies on a specific group over an amount of time. It is a great way to predict future genetic information on more than just the C-Ferns. In this experiment, two different generations for gametophytes and sporophytes of C-Ferns were observed and counted for the amount of wild type and polka dot mutant individuals within a sample and a population. The overall results demonstrated a 1:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the F1 gametophyte generation for both the sample and population, which was expected. The F1 sporophyte generation demonstrated a 1:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the sample and a 2:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the population. A 3:1 ratio of mutant to wild type was expected in the sporophytes. It was concluded that the polka dot mutant is recessive in sporophytes and demonstrates random fertilization in the diploid stage, but not in gametophytes. This process of population genetics in C-Ferns can be extremely beneficial in other organisms, such as humans. Population genetics could be a tool in medicine in determining human

In this experiment first the stages of an onion cell undergoing mitosis are going to be observed and every stage is going to be detected and drawn on paper. A brief description to what is going on should be attached to the pictures. This is important to understand the basics of cell division which is necessary growth,repair and asexual reproduction. Second the number of cells undergoing each phase is going to be counted to figure out in which phase the cell remains the most. If interphase is the stage in which the cell grows and prepares for cell division then the

The “Brassica rapa” is a fast plant known as the field mustard. This plant is well known for its rapid growing rate, which makes it an easy breeding cycle and easy to pollinate. In giving so this makes “Brassica rapa” a great participant for testing Gregor Mendel’s theories of inheritance. The “Brassica rapa” acts like a test subject in testing cross-pollination giving the understanding to the dominant allele of colored stems. There are different colors that are visible on the stem that are above the soil; the colors vary from green to purple. P1 seed was ordered, germinated and cross-pollinated until germination of the next off spring of plants were also done. It was

A) Meiosis consists of two cell divisions and is broken up into Meiosis I and Meiosis II. At the beginning of the Cell Cycle, in this case there are four chromatids each from the homologous pairs being A, a, B, b. This is the Diploid number (4) meaning it is 2 times the haploid number that will be seen at the end of meiosis II. During the S phase of interphase, the chromatids replicate and reach the end of G2 phase. Now starting meiosis, during the first stage of prophase I the chromosomes condense and pair up through synapsis with their sister chromatids creating AA, aa, BB, bb. After they pair up they go through a process called crossing over, where the homologous chromosomes share a piece of their genetic material with each other. Crossing over allows for the genetic diversity of chromosomes. Now there are four homologous chromosomes Aa, Aa, Bb, Bb, each containing heterozygous alleles because the sister chromatids exchanged genetic information with their homologous pair. During late prophase I, spindle fibers being to form where they will later attach to a homologous chromosomes centromere. The next stage is Metaphase I. During metaphase I, the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, also known to be the center of the cell. The homologous pairs form a tetrad which is considered a group of four homologous chromosomes. These homologous chromosomes orient themselves randomly, which is know as the process of independent

might affect the fitness of each variant. In other words which factors might increase plant growth, survival,

Apply your understanding of how alleles assort and combine during reproduction to evaluate a scenario involving a monohybrid cross.

_____ In swine, when a pure-breeding red is crossed with a pure-breeding white the F1 are all red. However, the F2 shows 9 red, 1 white and 6 of a new color, sandy. The Sandy phenotype is most likely determined by

Charlene Forest is an associate professor in the Biology department at Brooklyn College, who dedicates her research in to trying to understand the mechanism behind the process of fertilization in algae, as well as what controls expression of gamete-specific genes. To do so, she must understand how sperm and egg gametes first recognize and then fuse with each other. Thus, in order to find what causes the fusion of these gametes, Forest’s lab is cloning genes that prevent the fusion of sperm and egg gametes. She hopes that her research on the fertilization process in algae will help understand the fertilization process in other organisms, particularly humans.

In order to test this hypothesis and prediction, an experiment was conducted using a heterozygous F1 generation of Brassica Rapa seeds. The seeds were planted, pollinated, harvested (F2 generation) and germinated for observation. When leaves were visible, phenotypes (green vs. purple) were counted and recorded. The experiment took place over 13 weeks, spanning the full semester of General Biology Lab I. The sections that follow will detail the materials and methods used, the results of the investigation and an in-depth discussion of the outcomes.

The basic plant life cycle with alternation of generations is modified in angiosperms by the change of haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations, which take turns making each other.

D) Sexual reproduction is more likely to increase genetic variation than is asexual reproduction. E) Only asexual

ferns). This process of pheromonal regulation of reproductive traits protects ferns from the harmful effects of inbreeding, which would reduce genetic variation within the species and create vulnerabilities within a population. This would lead to a reduction in their numbers, as it has been studied that the sexual phenotype of gametophytes is heavily influenced by its social environment (Atallah & Banks, 2015). As discussed earlier, disparities between male and female gametophytes regarding environmental resources, which can be limited with increased spore densities, is critical in determining sex, which was shown through experimentation conducted by scientists Granger and Sturey, when studying the effect of antheridiogen concentration and spore size on gametophytes size in C. ferns. Their experimental results suggest the notion that gender could be directly influenced by the effect of antheridiogen and gametophyte growth under set environmental conditions, as well as if predisposed genetic mutations, which could alter the ACE’s effect within a population, are taken into account. Their evidence also suggests that gender can be indirectly altered concerning other unaccounted for developmental factors, such as the rate at which gametophyte growth occurred, but more research is required on this matter (Granger & Sturey,

Offspring differ somewhat from their parents and from one another. Instructions for development are passed from parents to offspring in thousands of discrete genes, each of which is now known to be a segment of a molecule of DNA. This essay will explore some of the reasons behind how and why these differences in appearance arise, from the base sequence of DNA through to the observed phenotype.

a. Cloning –take haploid cel and replace with a diploid nucleus (comes from organism whos traits you want to duplicate.

From the very beginning of evolution, human beings have been developing themselves rapidly in physical and mental aspects. With every successful evolutionary era, human beings are found to be somewhat alike to their ancestor. Birth of twins is always a matter of great curiosity in world. Many are amazed with this fact of twining. The fact that contrasts offspring’s being alike to their ancestor is a genetic carrier called DNA. DNA is a double helical structure that is composed of genetic material called chromosomes. Chromosomes found in human body cells are equal in number in each cell and are formed after the cell division and condensation of DNA (charlotte 3). With growing technology and scientific progress artificial twining called cloning is also made possible. But, Identical twins made from biological parents are incomparable to the clones made from a genetic host.