Prenatal Levels Of Cortisol And Placental Corticotropin Releasing Hormone

Infants born very preterm are exposed to considerable procedural pain-related stress during weeks to months of life-saving procedures during hospitalization in the neonatal intensive care unit, that appears to impact the HPA axis long after NICU discharge. Importantly, the neuroendocrine system, the immune system and the central nervous system are

The research is discussing the effects of prenatal stress (PS) on the development of socioemotional symptoms as well as neurodevelopmental disorders. The study arises from existing literatures where a significant relationship has been established between prenatal stress and social deficits such as autism and attention-deficit hypersensitivity disorder among children and schizophrenia among adolescents. King et al. identifies exposures to environmental hardships and stressful events as the underlying factor in the development of PS (274). The aspect has a negative impact on the immune and endocrine system as well as neurological development (Charil et al. 56). Studies have revealed that PS affects several aspects of brain development in the fetal stage. It increases rate of cell death and reduces rate of proliferation in the hypothalamus-pituitary axis (Schoenfeld and Gould 15).

The prenatal period is when quick changes in the fetal organs are vulnerable to organizing change and stability but also building internal working system to trigger emotional responses (McEwen et al. 2013). It is a critical time for brain development and the PFC (McEwen et al. 2013). It exposes a selection of long -term modifications on brain development and behaviour (Entringer et al. 2009). Prenatal exposure to stress affects hormones in the body including the physiology and anatomy that relate to increasing drug levels, cortical communication and more (Entringer et al. 2009). Fetal stress is any event that interrupts a fetal process in stability in the body. (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal stress impends the fetal nervous system and shortens the length of maturation due to many issues and concerns affecting the mother (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal psychosocial stress threatens the fetal nervous system and contracts the length of gestation (Entringer et al. 2009). High levels of placental corticotrophin- releasing hormone

When a mother is anxious or stressed due to labor pains, she tends to produce more epinephrine and norepinephrine

Hyperhemesis gravidarum is a condition in which the pregnant woman experiences severe nausea and vomiting. Although the causes of hyperemesis gravidarum are not well known; however, many believe that elevated blood level of human chorionic gonadotopin (HCG) may be a contributing factor of this condition. Currently the cause of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy is unknown, although there is strong evidence linking human chorionic gonadotropin or estrogens as well as genetic susceptibility possibly mediated through the vestibuloocular reflex pathway (Fejzo et al., 2012). The following case scenario refers to a 22 weeks pregnant woman admitted to the labor and delivery unit with severe nausea

Information was gathered subjectively and objectively. Subjective data was collected through clinical interviews and the mothers’ self-reports. Objective data was collected through estimating cortisol the stress hormone from saliva samples. The information was gathered on two different days, the first day was during the mothers’ 26-28th gestational week and the second was during their 32-34th weeks.

In this paper, I will explain how stress can cause brain damage in a woman’s pregnancy, postpartum depression, and brain damage in the child’s health. Pregnant women who encounter significant stress in their life are putting themselves at a higher risk for high blood pressure and complications with their health and their child’s health.

Pregnancy institutes a state of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia, a condition involving the increase of insulin circulating in the blood(Association, 2004). This altered state predisposes some women to form a degree of glucose intolerance with onset that was otherwise not recognized preceding pregnancy (Association, 2004; Gilmartin, Ural, & Repke, 2008; Kaaja & Rönnemaa, 2008). This form of intolerance is referred to as Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). GDM stems from a variety of factors ranging from human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS) secretion and estrogen disruption, but this study will focus on Glucocorticoid (GC) secretion (Kaaja & Rönnemaa, 2008). GCs are steroids that have potent immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties (Munck, Guyre, & Holbrook, 1984). Cortisol is a naturally occurring GC as well as the end-product of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the body’s central stress response(Jozic, Stojadinovic, Kirsner, & Tomic-Canic, 2015). HPA axis activity is characterized by the release of hypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), also referred to as corticotrophin- releasing hormone (CRH). When CRF binds to the CRF receptors on the anterior pituitary gland it stimulates the biosynthesis and release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)(Munck et al., 1984). Released ACTH binds to adrenal cortex receptors triggering cortisol production and release. During pregnancy, regulation of the HPA changes at a drastic rate (Maeyama

HCG stands for Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, which is a naturally occurring hormone during pregnancy. The HCG causes a trigger within the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the area of the brain that controls many bodily functions, including metabolism and weight. The HCG causes the hypothalamus to allow the release of unwanted fat within the body. This, paired with

Preeclampsia is a common and multisystem disorder in pregnancy which results in life threatening complications. It is a condition which occurs only to a pregnant woman or after her delivery, in which the blood pressure elevates after the twenty weeks of gestational age along with development of protein in the urine. Inflammatory activity is also increased along with development of insulin resistance. This way pregnancy highlights the tendency of women to the metabolic syndrome of resisting insulin which can appear in life at the later stages.

Rapidly escalating level of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) hormone in the blood, which is released by the placenta.

More recent research has shown that stress and anxiety in the mother can also have significant repercussions on children's mental health. Specifically, it seems likely that maternal anxiety in the second half of pregnancy can lead to persistent changes in the child's stress-adaptive system - at the level of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis - changes that will make it more vulnerable and significantly increase the risk of suffering from behavioral, emotional, or hyperactivity disorders. This finding by itself confirms the need to prevent, diagnose and treat early anxiety disorders in pregnancy.

Women in their 30s had relatively consistent percentages of low, moderate, and high levels of cortisol throughout pregnancy. 60% of women in their 30s had moderate cortisol levels at the end of the 1st trimester, in addition to 26% having high levels, and 14% having low levels. At the end of the 2nd trimester, 61% of these women had moderate cortisol levels, compared to 31% with high levels, and 8% with low levels. By the end of the 3rd trimester, 57% of these women had moderate cortisol levels, 36% had high levels, and 7% had low

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) is a natural hormone produced by the body in the placenta during pregnancy and although pregnant women are the source of increased levels of HCG, both men and non-pregnant women create low levels of HCG throughout their lifetime.

A mother who struggles with depression post-partum is likely to expose her baby to more harmful effects. Gerhardt (2015) states that the baby of a depressed mother can find it difficult to cope with or get over stress, or they may be more fearful (p. 21). These babies also may respond to others with depression themselves, as their mother may be neglectful in their care (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 36). One of the reasons for this is because of their cortisol levels, which can fluctuate situationally. However, in infants this can affect their development (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 83) as well as their immune system (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 118), and is evidence that a mother with depression can have a significant impact on her child well beyond when the depression occurs. Additionally, Gerhardt (2015) notes that, “When they grow up, these babies of depressed mothers are highly at risk of succumbing to depression themselves.” (p.