Proteins And Antibodies: Article Analysis

Proteins are an essential component of the human body tissues. They are made by combining amino acids together. There are many pros as well as cons to consuming inadequate amounts of protein each day. Making sure to consume the accurate type and amount of protein is important for the body. There are specific groups that do require more protein, however, if you are not a part of one of these groups consuming too much protein can have harmful effects.

a. This function is mediated by T cells and B cells (memory cells) in our body via adaptive immunity. The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is “remembered” by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by memory cells. Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it. So basically killer T cells will identify antigens present on foreign cells. These antigens are not found in any of the cells inside our body. Therefore, T cells will identify them and kill them.

Overwhelming, deleterious host immune response to an infection due to release of chemicals to fight the infection 2• 1

B-cells and T-cells both have to perform a few “quality control” checks to ensure that a functional cell is produced. Describe in detail the way either a B or T cell does this.

The organs that make up the lymphatic and immune system are the tonsils, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels. White blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), plasma, and platelets (thrombocytes) make up the blood. Lymphocytes are leukocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight off diseases. Two types of lymphocytes are B cells and T cells. Lymphocytes recognize antigens, or foreign substances/matter, in the body. Lymphocytes are a classification of agranulocytes, or cells (-cytes) without (a-) granules (granul/o) in the cytoplasm. B cells are created from stem cells, which are located in the bone marrow. B cells respond to antigens by becoming plasma cells. These plasma cells then create antibodies. Memory B cells produce a stronger response with the next exposure to the antigen. B cells fight off infection and bacteria while T cells defend against viruses and cancer cells. A hormone created by the thymus gland called thymosin changes lymphocytes into T cells. The thymus gland is active when you are a child and slowly shrinks, as you get older. T cells bind to the antigens on the cells and directly attack them. T cells secrete lymphokines that increase T cell production and directly kill cells with antigens. There are three types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and memory T cells.

function that selectively infects helper T cells” (545). My goal in this paper is to show the advances

These five articles talk about the opposite side of the debate on vaccines and show what the parents think about this debate, these articles show where the distrust comes from and how parents are manipulated to believe unaccredited claims. In Kluck’s article she writes, “She (a nurse) assured me in vague terms that it was completely safe and I had nothing to worry about.” We see a common trend in these articles and that is doctors/ nurses give the parents vague terms to assure them that their children will be fine and that the vaccines are completely safe; but parents want more than a nurse telling them, the vaccine is very safe and it is very rare for children to have side effects. They want evident with facts and test to prove it. However, some test that parents find are found to be severely manipulated, in John E. Calfee’s article we see him talk about an article written by “Andrew Wakefield and coauthored by 12 others, the article wrote

With this diagram, we can see which cells are derived from other cells by adding cytokines. What are cytokines? Well, they’re a specific type of messenger protein that signals cell differentiation, but more on that later. If we look at the T cell, we can see that since it’s low on the chart, it would need to have more cytokines, and more steps, added to it than, say, a Natural Killer cell. We can even make specialized T-cell, like

The triggering of the T-helper cell leads to a various pathways that can result in immunoglobulin class switching and antibody production, macrophage action through direct contact. The T-helper cell response delimited by two distinct pathways involves two different subtypes of T-helper cells- the T-helper1 and T-helper2 cells. T-helper1 cells are directed for intracellular microorganisms such as bacteria and parasites by means of the initiation of macrophages, whereas T-helper2 cells induce antibody production in B cells, to counteract extracellular pathogens and toxins. As soon as T-helper cells are activated, they distribute quickly and discharge cytokines to increase or police immune responses

Introduction : B lymphocytes are the effectors of humoral immunity and provides defense against pathogens by producing antibody. B cells constitute approximately 15% of peripheral blood leukocytes and arise from progenitors and precursors in the bone marrow. B lymphocytes undergo random immunoglobulin variable gene rearrangements at the heavy and light chain loci. These chains pair with the Igα and Igβ polypeptides to form the mature B-cell receptor which is then transported onto the cell surface where it can bind antigen and signal inside the cell. Different populations of B cells result in pre immune pools where each cell in these quiescent populations expresses a B cell antigen receptor with a unique specificity. The BCRs come in contact with their specific antigen and generate several intracellular signals are which leads activation, differentiation, and formation of plasma cells and memory B cells. This process mediates the response to subsequent antigen challenges. B lymphocytes play an essential role by not only producing antibodies but also functioning as antigen-presenting cells and certain B cells can also negatively regulate the immune response by producing regulatory cytokines and directly interacting with pathogenic T cells via cell to cell contact. Newly generated immature B cells are selected to enter the peripheral mature B-cell pool only if they do not bind to self-antigen. Immature B cells that bind to self antigen are not generally recruited to mature

She started out her seminar by comparing the composition of cells in the spleen of mice. From these experiments, Marrack found an increase of CD11c+ and CD11b+ cells in the spleens of aged C57Bc/6 females but not in males. These cells are known to express T-bet, a transcription factor that promotes inflammatory responses. Another experiment found the forcing expression of T-bet resulted in the transformation of B-cells to CD11c+ cells. This phenomenon was found to be important since B-cells expressing T-cells are induced by influenza or retroviral infections. Correspondingly, T-bet cells induce B-cells to

the T cells and causes them to release cytokines which all together cause a horrible reaction in

When a viral infection happens within an organism, there are two main types of immune responses. The first, is the innate immune response which involves different resistance mechanisms to determine and respond to an unspecified pathogen. Innate immunity in relation to viruses requires cytokines and NK cells to destroy the pathogen. Viral infection in cells promote the production of a specific type of cytokines known as interferon and they interfere with viral replication in the host cells. Interferon can be split down into three main molecules: interferon-, interferon- and interferon-. Interferon- &  are the main molecules in viral infection. Interferon also activate natural killer cells in order for them to destroy virus infected cells and allow the release of cytokines. The adaptive immune response also

Immunoglobulin (Ig) or Antibody (AB) is a protein that is in the shape of a Y that is produced by plasma cells and use by the immune system. These proteins are then utilized to identify and attack bacteria and viruses. Immunoglobulin is clearly a very important protein in our human bodies as well as being very integral to our survival and our ability to fend off foreign molecules. This has lead to a lot of deep research regarding this protein. By knowing the proteins exact structure and functions there will be a larger understanding of how our bodies actually work and how we can improve our health to live longer and better lives. This is exactly what will be looked at throughout this paper, the research, structure, function and behavior of the protein Immunoglobulin (Ig).

Theories about antibody production have had a long and rich history (1). The solutions to the questions surrounding how the immune system can target and destroy a diverse range of foreign organisms to the body were postulated by Frank Macfarlane Burnet in the latter half of the 20th century (2). The research covered by his peers earlier in the century helped Burnet hone his theory on clonal selection. His theory, and the development of new applications of molecular biology, impacted to change both the methods and the concepts of modern immunology (2, 3, 4 & 5). Through the clonal selection theory, modern immunologists have acquired a more detailed understanding of the chemical and recognition mechanisms employed by the immune system to destroy foreign invaders. This is useful in a variety of areas in the medical field, particularly to do with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as autoimmune diseases, cancers and tumours (5 & 11). One way this is being accomplished is through the production of monoclonal antibodies, such as hybridomas (5). Clonal selection has also proved to be a fundamental in the advancement of immunological understanding and presents the foundation on which modern immunological theories are described.