Psychology Of Early Life Stress

Animals and Humans have a biological stress response intended to facilitate survival in the case of a life threatening attack or severe illness. This is commonly referred to the “fight or flight” response. Some primates, including humans have developed the unhealthy propensity to trigger this response for psychological or social reasons. Humans in particular experience the stress response exponentially more often for psychological reasons than for the purpose of survival (Stress, 2008). For example, we are may feel “stressed out” about work or school and if we think about it too much and get upset, we may experience a stress response Just by thinking about something that is bothering us, we can trigger the biological “fight or flight”

At least 50% of all adults and children are exposed to a psychologically traumatic event (such as a life-threatening assault or accident, humanmade or natural disaster, or war). As many as 67% of trauma survivors experience lasting psychosocial impairment, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); panic, phobic, or generalized anxiety disorders; depression; or substance abuse.(Van der Kolk, et al, 1994) Symptoms of PTSD include persistent involuntary re-experiencing of traumatic distress, emotional numbing and detachment from other people, and hyperarousal (irritability, insomnia, fearfulness, nervous agitation). PTSD is linked to structural neurochemical changes in the central nervous system which may have a direct

It is a well known fact that childhood abuse can increase the risk of developing PTSD later in life, (Zhao, 2013) but how does this correlate to veterans? In the Ohio National Guard Study of Risk and Resilience, Israel Liberzon found that a gene known as ADRB2 and childhood adversity could lead to the development of PTSD after combat exposure (Liberzon, 2014). In addition to this, twin studies also suggest that genetics could play an important role in resilience to PTSD. In recent years Dr. Resseler and his colleges research has shown that different genes linked with fear and stress response are associated with abnormalities in the amygdala and hippocampus. These areas help control the fear response, so the different genes could also be associated with a greater risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder. They’ve also done studies that show estrogen could mean that women have a higher risk of developing PTSD than men (Resseler, 2014). This could be why nearly 20% of females veterans involved in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars have posttraumatic stress disorder (Lee,

Stress and anxiety affect a large segment of the child and adolescent population. Numerous stressors from a wide range of domains contribute to the current levels of subclinical anxiety and diagnosed anxiety disorders. Without effective coping strategies, the cumulative effect of these stressors can lead to the clinical diagnosis of one or more anxiety disorders. Left untreated, these disorders can carry severe long-term consequences, including social, cognitive, and academic impairments. Furthermore, these deficiencies can lead to significant limitations in adulthood, such as reduced career choices, substance abuse, and an increase in the use of both mental and physical health care.

Many scientists have been turning to genes that may have a role in creating fearful memories for an explanation as to what causes PTSD. They have also been studying different areas of the brain that control fear and stress such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. The amygdala has a role in the early stages of learning to fear and not to fear certain situations. The prefrontal cortex is said to help control the extinction of long term fearful memories. An individual genetics, brain area growth, and other environmental factors play a role in the risk of the individual developing PTSD after a traumatic

Being able to understand the many genetic and environmental connections to stress will provide a way to map out the diagnostic and treatment which will show how vulnerable and resilient people are to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Also, there are a lot of better ways to study the brain. Scientists are being provided with information about the structures and chemicals of the brain and how the development of PTSD are related to the mind and the brain. There are two brain structures that imaging has placed emphasis on, the amygdala and hippocampus. The amygdala is how we study fear and it is believed that this is involved in people with PTSD. The hippocampus is involved with the memory. There is evidence that there is some memory loss in people with PTSD. It has been discovered that neurochemicals may be involved in PTSD. Medicine can be used to reverse this neurochemical dysfunction. "Ultimately, it may even be possible to predict the development of PTSD based on the early psychological and changes in people who have been exposed to a traumatic event. Continued research also offers the promise of new treatments for PTSD in the future."( Harold Cohen, Ph.D.)

Friedrich Nietzsche once said, “That which does not kill us makes us stronger.” Often this is the case, however, certain trauma is too overwhelming for the body and mind to recover from. Instead of becoming stronger as the German philosopher quoted some things can emotionally and physically weaken the body. In fact when confronted with huge amounts of stress there are some who have emotional and mental breakdowns, which can result in posttraumatic stress disorder commonly known as PTSD. This anxiety disorder may occur after experiencing or witnessing a trauma or life-threatening event that causes severe feelings of helplessness and fear. In the following research paper the psychology and neuroscience background of PTSD will be examined, theories

These adaptive mechanisms can become maladaptive if unresolved after precipitating events have passed, leading to interferences in emotional regulation (Liston, McEwen, & Casey, 2009; Juster et al., 2011). Imaging studies show alterations in the brain structures that assist in regulation of the stress response—the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex—due to prolonged exposure to stress (Carrion et al. 2010; Rao et al. 2010). The over activation of this fear circuitry in the brain can lead to distorted processing, contributing to depression (Thienkrua et al., 2006; Neria, Besser, Kiper, & Westphal, 2010; Rao et al., 2010), anxiety (Derryberry and Reed, 2002; Goldin et al., 2009; Graham and Milad, 2014), and mood impairments (Kobasa, 1979; Linehan, 1993; Haller and Miles, 2004). These cognitive changes can also contribute to insomnia, chronic pain, addictive disorders, impairment of immunity, and development of coping mechanisms such as smoking, use of alcohol or drugs, overeating, and other survival mechanisms (Raja, 2012). The allostatic load of a chronically over-activated hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system can lead to development of comorbid health conditions such as cardiovascular disease,

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a widespread disorder that affects certain individuals psychologically, behaviorally, and emotionally following the experience of a traumatic event (Lee et al., 2005, p. 135). However, because of inconsistencies regarding the percentage of individuals who experience PTSD and the percentage of individuals who subsequently develop PTSD, researchers hypothesize that both biological and environmental factors contribute to the development of PTSD (Wolf et al. 2010, p. 328). In order gain a better understanding of this disorder and to discover contributing and predicative factors which contribute to the development of PTSD, this paper analyses the historical context and prevalence of PTSD, the

To best comprehend human life from conception to death, it is important to have an understanding of the foundations of human development. A persons’ origin and obstacles endured during early life are important building blocks that shape where they are headed. This key factor better allows therapists to assist in helping an individual learn and obtain a better grasp on their developing lifespan from beginning to end. The focus for this paper will deal with the relationship between the pregnant mother and her fetus. It will be a reflection on how she responds to life stressors and how they can help or hinder the prenatal development of the fetus in the womb and thereafter.

Despite these concurring viewpoints, there are fundamental differences between these perspectives. The medical/disease perspective focuses on the costs of early stressful experiences, asserting that exposure to early life adversity disrupts normal development, causing dysregulations in biological systems (Ellis & Del Giudice, 2014). As outlined by Del Giudice and Ellis (2016), research from this perspective generally focuses on unfavorable health outcomes associated with early stress exposure, such as reduced performance on intelligence tests and greater prevalence of psychopathology. The evolutionary perspective, in contrast, extends the understanding of epigenetically-based developmental processes by examining the benefits of stress responsivity and its orchestration of adaptive developmental patterns. According to the ACM, organisms have calibrated their systems via environmental cues to adapt physiological and behavioral systems to their current and future environments (Del Giudice & Ellis, 2016). Therefore, despite potential impairments/costs, there should also be adaptations; for example, as discussed by Ellis & Del Giudice (2014), adolescents

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common and chronic anxiety disorder that develops, when a person is subjected to a distressing or shocking life event such as physical or sexual assault, terrorist attack, military warfare, and a natural calamity. This paper highlights the pathophysiology and age continuum; genomic issues; literature review; clinical guidelines and various approaches for the management of PTSD.

It is not uncommon for people to experiencing symptoms of anxiety, fear, dissociation, or distress (Bremner, 2006). If the symptoms continue to get worse or last for multiple months that one may have posttraumatic stress, however if with time and care the symptoms improve then they do not have posttraumatic stress (Mayo Clinic, 2015). It is assumed that symptoms of posttraumatic stress represent the behavioural indication of stress-caused changes to the brain (Bremner, 2006). Some if not all of these symptoms may lead to the use and/or abuse of substances such as drugs and/or alcohol (Bremner, 2006)

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects 7.7 million American adults and can also occur during childhood. PTSD is an anxiety disorder that stems from a recent emotional threat such as a natural, disaster, war, and car accidents. PTSD usually occurs from an injury or coming close death. A person who has experienced a past traumatic event has a heightened chance of being diagnosed with PTSD after a current trauma. PTSD can also be determined by looking at one’s genes, different emotions, and current or past family setting. Normally, when a person without PTSD goes through a traumatic event the body releases stress hormones, which in time returns back to normal; However, a person with PTSD releases stress hormones that do not return

The amygdala is known to learn from exposure to fear and store assessment of threat–related stimuli. The prefrontal cortex is involved in extinction and the retention of fear and is connected to the amygdala. Finally, the hippocampus encodes the context during fear learning process and sends it to the amygdala. People with PTSD have hyper-activity in the amygdala, while having hypo-activity in the prefrontal cortex and there is reduction of the hippocampus volume. This reduction may limit proper evaluation and categorization of the experience. A study on Vietnam soldiers revealed that lesions in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex resulted in the absence of PTSD. To get further into the molecular level studies been done on the hormonal system. “Stress is known to contribute to the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders, including the majority of psychiatric like major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder.” (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3825244/pdf/DM30-02-343616.pdf). Research has revealed evidence that a hormonal system known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is the one that gets disrupted in people with PTSD. The hormonal system is involved in normal stress reactions, so the disruption of this system in people with PTSD creates this “false alarm”. It has been suggested by some scientist that the dysfunction of the HPA system results in hippocampal damage in people with PTSD. Damage in the hormones is caused by damage to