Pubic Symphysis

The robust australopithecines or paranthropines had a curved face with a arch for the cheek bones that are formed by connecting the zygomatic and the temporal bones together. The robust australopithecines had a bone ridge on top of their skull called a sagittal crest, which is also attached to the jaw muscles. They had a flexable base just above were their jaw bone connected to their cheek bone. With their really large back teeth (below the cheek bone) the robust australopithecines fossils were known to the researchers as the “nutcracker man”. They used these really large back teeth to eat tough foods and nuts. And their teeth in the front were smaller.

How can the age of a body be estimated using bones? What are some of the different areas of the body that may give an indication of age?

There were many factors that lead t the discovery of the skeleton owner’s gender, ethnicity, height, and age.

The earliest hominine fossils show evidence of marked differences in body size, which may reflect a pattern of the different sexes in our early ancestors. The bones suggest that females may have been 3 to 4 ft in height and

It is obvious that biology highlights many ways in which bodies are naturally different, including male and female dissimilarities; a main article which emphasises this is Schiebinger’s “Skeletons in the Closet”, showing that in 1795 a claim of the first illustration of a female skeleton was made. Previously, there was only one ideal skeleton illustration

While it is argued that the influence of bone/body size is removed from MWI and CTI and can be demonstrated algebraically, statistically and graphically, analogous CI values in this analysis did not differ noticeably or influence statistical outcomes. We do suggest however, that the relationship between size variables and measurement variables are explored prior to the application of ratios. Bone quantity and quality of the human skeleton is the cumulative product of health, diet and nutrition, physical activity and lifestyle over the life course. Further, while nutrition plays a key role in skeletal growth and maintenance during all developmental stages, diet and nutrition are intricately woven with other biological, social, and cultural influences on the skeleton. Bone tissue is a dynamic medium that is capable of recording many life history events, allowing us to reconstruct some of the key influences on bone loss and fragility in past populations. While our work, on cortical bone loss at Çatalhöyük remains preliminary, and will benefit with the addition of biomechanical analyses in other long bones of the skeleton, the patterns revealed in this study do provide some insight on bone health across different life stages, particularly in those individuals from the later Neolithic phases of mound occupation. Adult cortical bone loss measured in the metacarpals shows some of the expected age-related patterns but

The beginning of the lab consisted of taking inventory of what bone were present in the case number that was being worked on. The Bones that were present in case number 002 were the right tibia, right radius, mandible, right scapula, left humerus, left femur, left Os coxae, the cranium, and two right molars. The first part of the lab was estimating sex from the remains. The method used was Buikstra which helped determined with sex using the Os coxae. While observing the Os coxae I noticed that the ilium looked a low and wide when put together with the femur in posterior position. The morphoscopic method was also used to give a rate from 1-5 of the bone to estimate sex. The ventral arc, subpubic concave and the preauricular sulcus was present

predict sex was better than postcranial measurements. Additionally, sexual dimorphic features show large variation within and between populations (Keen, 1950; Acsádi, and Nemeskeri, 1970; Workshop of European Anthropologists, 1980; Ubelaker, 1984; Krogman and İşcan, 1986). Some sites on the skull have shown a wide range within sex variation making them less reliable for sex determination. For example, a projecting nuchal crest is typically associated with a male skull but can also appear on a female skull, similarly non-projecting nuchal crests, typically associated with a female skull, can also appear on a male skull (Gulekon and Turgut, 2003; Klepinger, 2006). Yet, this and others, are still some of most commonly used sites for sexing. Keen (1950) expressed that because morphology is often related to size and robustness, determining sex is extremely difficult unless extreme features are expressed, such as a very small mastoid process that projects only a small distance for females and a massive mastoid process that projects a great distance from the inferior margins of the skull for males. Furthermore Meindl et al. (1985) and Walker (1995) have discussed that the morphology of sites on the skull of both sexes appear more masculine as the person ages, which would also hinder the accuracy of determining the sex of skeletal remains. Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994, p.16) also caution that "estimation of sex can be difficult if the observer is not familiar with the overall pattern

Osteitis Pubis is an inflammation of the pubic symphysis and surrounding muscle insertions. First described in patients who underwent suprapubic surgery it remains a well-known complication of invasive procedures about the pelvis. It also may occur in an process of in an athletes. Athletes who have oscitis pubic usually experience groin pains and often find it hard to stand or weak, or even to run. It is a painful over so injury of pubic feelings the typically bone that is found is in athletes whose sports involve kicking, rapid accelerations. There are many symtoms that

and Megyesi, M. S., (2004) studied gender and ethnic differences in bone architecture. One of the limitations of these models is that ethnic differences are not counted in femur geometry although these differences are less. Clark, J. M., et.al (1987) showed that there are big differences in the neck shaft angle, horizontal offset from person to person. Significant differences will femoral geometry (Crabtree, N., et al., 2000) (Greendale, G. A., et al., 2003). Khemachit, S. and Surasith, P. (2008) studied contour of the skull using two-dimesional image data where as Buranarugsa, and Mr. Houghton. P. (1981) studied contour of the skull with rectangular coordinates. Schenkar, R., et al. (1999) explained the application of advanced technologies to achieve physical models of the

On the skull, the nasal width was 17 mm and the height was 25 mm. Although the nasal spine is very small and the orbital opening is rectangular, the nasal silling is sharp and the prognathism was straight. The final ethnicity determination while using the skull, is the nasal index. The nasal index is 34.4 mm. When using the femur to help in the determination, the fingers can fit under the curvature of the femur. The remains show the body as being of white (European) descent. Having the results be ⅗ white and ⅖ african, it was strenuous, to come to a set determination, until the femur was put into

KNM-ER 406 was found in Koobi, Kenya in 1969 by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua and they said this finding was about 1.7 million years old. This finding was a complete adult male fossil finding. KNM-ER 732 A was found in Koobi Fora, Kenya as well by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua, but in 1970. This finding was known to be 1.7 million years old as well and was a partial cranium of a female paranthropus boisei and gave more insight that there was sexual dimorphism in this early species. The finding OH 5 was nicknamed the Nutcracker Man, which was found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in 1959 by Mary Leakey. This finding was 1.8 million years old and is the most famous finding. It was the complete cranium of a male. Peninj Mandible was a well preserved jaw that was found in Tanzania at the Lake Natron region by Kamoya Kimeu. There was a finding made in either 2010 or 2011 in Tanzania at Olduvia Gorge that composed of bone fragments such as the ulna, tibia, and femur that gave more information regarding the post cranial structure of paranthropus boisei. These findings helped prove that paranthropus boisei was sexually dimorphic, more ruggedly built, showed signed of bipedalism, and had some aboreal behaviors.

MORPHOMETIC VARIABILITY: Sex identification was carried out through direct observation of the gonads based on the characteristics described by (Holden & Raitt 1975) individuals with a Standard Length (SL) equal to or greater 119.7 mm for females and 82.7 mm for males was considered as adults (Mancera-Rodríguez et al. n.d.).

A total of 36 specimen were analyzed, thirty Triceratops and six Torosaurus. The cluster diagram was completed and split into three phases. The first phase, which is juvenile, includes changes such as size increase and major changes in skull shape. The postorbital horns become long and massive too. The second phase, subadult, involves fusion of the skull, development of the surface texture, and a slowing growth. The last phase, adult, involves fusion of the epoccipitals, epijugal and rostrum. Once they had all specimens placed in the different phases they could see that the Triceratops was spread throughout all phases along with the few Torosaurus specimen. This shows that “skulls assigned to Torosaurus are not consistently more mature than those assigned to Triceratops” (Longrich and Field). Next they discuss the inability of Horner and Scannella to see these trends, due to their methodology, bone remolding in particular. According to Longrich and Field, the degree of remolding even varies within a single bone. Which would mean attempting to estimate the age of an animal could get a paleontologist different answers from different parts of the same fossil. The two also strongly believed that intermediates had to exist for there to be a adult and juvenile distinction. Epiparietals further negate this claim by saying that no

The mandible that is to be identified has similar sizes of anterior and posterior teeth, a parabolic dental arcade shape, an intermediate thickness of the corpus, an absence of molarized premolars, no simian shelf, and an absence of a chin and retromolar space. Using our knowledge of these traits, we can proceed to figure out which hominin this mandible is