Research Studies On Developmental Origins Of Health And Disease

The impact of postpartum depression causes a mother to frequently feel exhausted, emotionally empty, and guilty because she cannot show love to her baby. The mother feels overwhelmed by feelings of harming her baby and may lack the emotional energy to relate to her newborn, which prevents her from perceiving the baby’s attempts to communicate. Depressed mothers are less likely to play with, read to, or even breastfeed their baby and tend to be inconsistent in their care causing a disruption in the bonding process. Many mothers are embarrassed to get help out of shame. Postpartum depression also has an extremely high impact on the newborn. Katja Gaschler (2008) states, “three-month-old infants of depressed mothers look at their mothers less often and show fewer signs of positive emotion than do babies of mentally healthy mothers” (p. 65). Postpartum depression during the first few months of life may also cause negative effects on a child’s development including: social problems (difficulty establishing relationships, social withdrawal, and acting out destructively); behavioral problems (temper tantrums, sleep problems, hyperactivity, and aggression); cognitive problems (walking and talking late and learning difficulties); and emotional problems (low self-esteem and anxiety). The family as a whole is also greatly impacted by

One psychosocial factor is the family’s socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic statuses has been researched to be on of the most influential factors in rather or not a family will succeed or face challenges, it can be a determinant in the development of mental health, physical health, and emotional health. A parent’s educational level, their occupation, and income could place the family in either a beneficial or hindering situation, in return, affecting the way a parent could establish attachment with their child. For example, a single parent raising their child and having to manage two jobs, could result in limited attachment to their parent or primary caregiver. Parental stress and their adverse childhood experiences is another psychosocial factor which can determine a child’s

Throughout life, both children and adults experience varying amounts of stress in their everyday lives. For the most part, this has been proven to be healthy and crucial in strengthening their response to such stimuli later in life. This paper will focus on the findings of various studies in which researchers have found links between stress exposure and childhood development. Specifically, this paper will focus on the effects of what is known as toxic stress and its effects on the development of a child and its role in the development of mental disorders as the child transitions into adulthood.

The prenatal period is when quick changes in the fetal organs are vulnerable to organizing change and stability but also building internal working system to trigger emotional responses (McEwen et al. 2013). It is a critical time for brain development and the PFC (McEwen et al. 2013). It exposes a selection of long -term modifications on brain development and behaviour (Entringer et al. 2009). Prenatal exposure to stress affects hormones in the body including the physiology and anatomy that relate to increasing drug levels, cortical communication and more (Entringer et al. 2009). Fetal stress is any event that interrupts a fetal process in stability in the body. (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal stress impends the fetal nervous system and shortens the length of maturation due to many issues and concerns affecting the mother (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal psychosocial stress threatens the fetal nervous system and contracts the length of gestation (Entringer et al. 2009). High levels of placental corticotrophin- releasing hormone

cope in the face of danger. In situations of chronic threat, a condition called ‘hypercortisolism’

Studies on rats revealed baby rats that had a nurturing mother during periods of stress we calmer and less aggressive later in life. Baby rats that did not receive that nurturing during stressful events had an increase in blood pressure, increase in stress hormone production and later in life where more aggressive. (Meany, M. Nova, 2013) Miles O’Brien, a “research team has followed about 60 families over 30 years. Although there is not just one way to build attachment, certain patterns became clear.”

Talge, N. M., Neal, C, Glover, V., & the Early Stress, Translational Research Prevention Science Network: Fetal and Neonatal Experience on Child Adolescence Mental Health. (2007). Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 245-261.

Another important part of this study was looking at how these effects occurred during different stages of prenatal development, as the “consequences of prenatal maternal stress were determined by the

(Jaffee, 2012). Infants who have parents who suffer from postpartum depression show patterns of an impairment in the physiological regulatory mechanism system. Mothers who suffer from postpartum depression are less likely to stimulate their child ( Murray,

Strength and weaknesses: Niemann and Weiss (2012) decided to exclude four families who were unable to submit children’s cortisol samples, and this could further guarantee internal validity. However, regardless of the fact that this was a pilot study, the small sample size could negatively impact on external validity. In addition to the small sample size, it is potentially possible that these mothers, whether consciously or unconsciously, gave themselves and their children high scores during the interviews.

Women go through a major life transition during pregnancy and early motherhood that is physically and mentally demanding making women more susceptible to stress and anxiety (Henrichs, Schenk, Schmidt, Velders, Hofman, Jaddoe, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2009). I have had personal experiences observing anxious young mothers interact with their infants and children. I have seen these children eventually display developmental delays, poor eating and sleeping behaviors, and even their own anxieties. I am unsure about whether this maternal anxiety accounts for these problems. How do anxious mothers impact infant development?

The Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework is a critical framework that truly affects our growth. From the interaction of these four forces, scientists use this model as an indication to help explain the development of each individual. Specific interactions between each of these forces makes each individual special and unlike anyone else. The Biopsychosocial Framework consists of four forces including biological forces, psychological forces, sociocultural forces, and life-cycle forces that combined impact us in a unique way.

Economic circumstances has an influence on multiple areas that affect infant development. Income related difference in parenting appear early in the infants life; for instance, on average low income mothers are less affeffectionate, less responsive to infants’ distress signals, and they are more likely to have harsh parenting styles. Children from a low income have fewer stimulating experiences and learning materials than children from higher income households. This leads to apparent differences that during the first years and often last into adulthood. One of those differences are that the children from low income are more likely to have increased behavioral problems and lower cognitive scores. Furthermore, children from a high income family usually experience psychological stress because the parents pressure the child to overachieve. The financial situation can also affect if the infant is able to get the nutrition intake that is needed, and if the infant is unable to get the right nutrition that will lead to other areas of development being affected.Financial situations

Puberty in teenager’s early puberty stages can be effected by hormonal changes and imbalances. Studies in high-risk exposal areas of the world potential effects of related amounts of endocrine disruptors at particular times of their developmental statuses can affect the timing of puberty. Endocrine disrupters can be prevented during adolescent time frames by the parents purchasing products of organic processes and keeping away from processed foods, some household chemicals, pesticides, and plastics (Weiner, Lerner, and Easterbrooks, 2012). Low dose exposures have been shown affect the hormonal roles in the body and, especially, in the endocrine system for women, which can expose their uterus to estrogens that can cause breast cancer years later (Vandenberg, 2014). Parents can read into the listings of the endocrine disruptors and effects with the NIH and CDC websites.

A mother who struggles with depression post-partum is likely to expose her baby to more harmful effects. Gerhardt (2015) states that the baby of a depressed mother can find it difficult to cope with or get over stress, or they may be more fearful (p. 21). These babies also may respond to others with depression themselves, as their mother may be neglectful in their care (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 36). One of the reasons for this is because of their cortisol levels, which can fluctuate situationally. However, in infants this can affect their development (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 83) as well as their immune system (Gerhardt, 2015, p. 118), and is evidence that a mother with depression can have a significant impact on her child well beyond when the depression occurs. Additionally, Gerhardt (2015) notes that, “When they grow up, these babies of depressed mothers are highly at risk of succumbing to depression themselves.” (p.