S. Flexneri

The genome of E. coli 0157:H7 was recently sequenced and contains 1,387 new genes absent in non pathogenic strains. Analysis of the genome suggests that there are a variety of potential virulence genes that have yet to be explored, including fimbrial and other adhesions, secretion systems, and toxins. Many of the virulence genes are similar to those associated with pathogenesis in Salmonella and Shigella. Most of them are found on pathogenicity islands from viral DNA that is transmitted to the bacteria through the activity of a lysogenic phage. The two most important toxins, Stx1 and Stx2 (for shiga-toxin) are found on such islands and are composed of 5 B subunits surounding an active A component, which is transported into the cell after the

Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains often occur in epidemic waves initiated by one or a few successful clones. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is prominently featured during these epidemics. Historically associated with hospitals and other healthcare settings, MRSA now has emerged as a widespread cause of community infections. The majority of Staphylococcus aureus strains are now resistant to penicillin and methicillin (MRSA). Golden staph is creating headlines across the world, the superbug is becoming unstoppable. According to government statistics “one in five cases were resistant to antibiotics” (Alexander, 2017). Scientist are trying to eradicate golden staph with antibiotics, however they are adapting rapidly. Scientists are yet to identify how exactly the bacteria keeps adapting. Antibiotics attack infections by meddling with the bacterial ribosome, which is the part of the cell that makes proteins. If a cell cannot make protein, it dies. “The way the antibiotic works is it throws a spanner in the works. The drug comes in and jams up the machine so the cell can't make protein anymore. “Antibiotic-resistant bacteria find a way to apply oil and restart the machined Belousoff's team compared the cell structure of resistant and non-resistant strains of golden staph under an electron microscope to learn that the latter infections had developed a mutation several

CDCgov: Escherichia coli (E. coli) [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; c2014-2015 [cited 2015-11-08]. Available from

1 Katz, L. S., Petkau, A., Beaulaurier, J., Tyler, S., Antonova, E. S., Turnsek, M. A., . . . Tarr, C. L. (2013). Evolutionary Dynamics of Vibrio cholerae O1 following a Single-Source Introduction to Haiti. MBio, 4(4). doi:10.1128/mbio.e00398-13 2 July 2013

Foodborne illnesses is an important problem in the United States, which cause a total of 19,056 infections, 4,200 hospitalizations, and 80 deaths were reported in 2013. Moreover, foodborne illnesses cost the United States an estimated $152 billion per year in healthcare (Scharff, 2010; CDC, 2014). E. coli O157 belonged Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), it was usually classified pathotypically as enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) (Bryan et al., 2015). Between 2000 and 2010 have 5688 cases of O157 STEC infections were reported by FoodNet sentinel states, while the rate of O157 STEC infection decreased from 2.17 to 0.95 per 100,000 (Gould et al., 2013). By the way, Magwedere et al. (2013) also reported retail ground meat samples were purchased at grocery stores, local farmers’ markets, and online vendors, out of 16 ground chicken samples, 7 samples tested positive for O157 STEC. On the other hand, E. coli also causes diverse extraintestinal infections by uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), urinary tract infections (UTI) is a good example to illustrate. The economic burden associated with urinary tract infections is estimated to be approximately 1.5 billion in the United States annually. According to previous studies, the food animal and meat reservoir might exist and isolate from retail chicken meat products for UPEC (Jakobsen et al., 2010; Shortlidge et al., 2013; Natalie et al., 2015). In recent research suggested UPEC besides the ability to

Many people think of Escherichia coli as only a severe intestinal illness caused by eating uncooked, contaminated water, or unwashed fruits, but it is much more than only a negative (Amenu et al., 2014). The quick regeneration time of Escherichia coli makes it extremely useful in laboratory studies. In terms of research, a useful aspect of Escherichia coli is the extensive amount of information we have on them (Archer et al., 2011). Scientists have used Escherichia coli to host proteins, and it has been excellent resource for evolution studies as the bacteria has adapted frequently over the years (Archer et al., 2011). The non- pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli are frequently used in medical investigations involving diseases that are difficult to work with. Examples of these diseases include cancer or anthrax poisoning (Das et al., 2013).

Serratia Marcescens are rod-shaped bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are a group of Gram negative bacterium that are opportunistic human pathogens humans(Petersen and Tisa 2013). The genus Serratia has 14 recognized species with 2 subspecies(Mahlen 2011). S. marcescens cause in hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) (Sydnor and Perl 2011) and diarrhea associated with HIV/AIDS. Serratia can survive in different environments like water, soil, and the digestive tracts of various animals Petersen and Tisa 2013). In the gastrointestinal tract, it can destroy microvilli and vacuolization. It can also cause nosocomial infections like catheter-associated bacteremia, urinary tract infections respiratory tract infection, meningitis, bacteremia

Theodor Eschrich, a German pediatrician and bacteriologist, is the individual responsible for discovering this specific organism. During the late 1800’s, while he was studying neonatal and infant fecal flora, Escherich used promising techniques of bacterial isolation in pure culture, fermentation reactions, and Gram staining to identify 19 bacterial species (Donnenberg, 2013) (2). Prior to the establishment of the genus Escherichia, E. coli was known as Bacterium coli commune (Percival, 2014) (3). The colonization of E. coli begins at an early stage of our life and remains with us throughout the course of our life. It is thought that the colonization begins within hours of birth since the initial strains are generally serologically identical to those present in the mother (Donnenberg, 2013). E. coli strains in humans are usually harmless and as a result can coexist with their hosts, therefore are characterized sometimes as a commensal. E. coli plays a role in maintaining healthy conditions for the human gut as well as protection against pathogenic organisms (Donnenberg, 2013). Yet, pathogenicity has been associated with certain strains of E. coli. Diarrheal diseases are the leading cause of child mortality in some regions of the world, and pathogenic E. coli strains are main contributors (Croxen, 2013) (4). Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enteohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC),

Background. Haemophilus influenzae, a major pathogen causing respiratory tract infections and meningitis, is becoming increasingly resistant to small spectrum penicillins. Investigating the reasons for this resistance is challenging. Methods. The sequences of the ftsI gene, encoding the transpeptidase domain of penicillin binding protein (PBP) 3, were determined for 44 strains of Haemophilus influenzae with reduced susceptibility to β-lactam antibiotics. The strains, isolated from children, were analysed for genetic relationship by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Results. The sequences have different mutations and were classified into three groups (I (n = 3), II (n = 36, including H. influenzae ATCC 49247), and III (n=5)) on the basis of

S. marcenscens is an adaptable bacteria found in many different environments including water, soil, gastrointestinal tracts of many animals, but grow particularly well on starchy food sources (Petersen and Tisa, 2013). S. marcenscens when first isolated it was believed to be non-pathogenic, but S. marcenscens is responsible for nosocomial human infections, plant infections, insect and nematode infections, among many more (Petersen and Tisa, 2013). S. marcenscens is opportunistic and is known to cause nearly every possible infection imaginable including, urinary tract infections, upper respiratory infections,

In 1961, soon after the introduction of methicillin, the first β-lactamase-resistant penicillin, strains of Staphylococcus aureus that were resistant to methicillin were identified in the United Kingdom. From the 1960s into the early 1970s, MRSA infections in Europe were limited largely to hospital outbreaks caused predominantly by S. aureus phage type 83A (subsequently identified to be sequence type 250; this so-called “archaic clone” gradually became infrequent and was replaced in the 1970s and 1980s by five prevalent clonal lineages, although many MRSA backgrounds existed between the 1960s and 2000. The terms Community-Acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) and hospital acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) have been used to call attention both to the genotypic differences of certain MRSA isolates as well as to the epidemiological and clinical features of the

Water-borne human infectious diseases are associated with human or animal faeces. Animals are becoming a worry, globally and they place an enormous trouble on the human population of many countries (Domingo et al. 2007).Bacteria known as Faecal indicator organisms (FIO) were used to indicate the occurrence of faecal contamination. The most common FIO are Escherichia coli and Enterococci. These organisms are ideal to

The coincidental phylogenesis hypothesis suggests some forms of pathogenic virulence did not co-evolve with the host . After, C. tetani bacteria enter a person wound, the bacteria may grow and divide rapidly, even though the human body is not their natural habitat. C. tetani produce neurotoxin that is lethal to the human race . Bacterium's normal aliveness cycle is in the soil not in a human body which that leads it to produce this toxin (Farrar, 2000). The bacterium gets inside a human instead of in the soil by mere coincidence . The neurotoxin is not coordinated at the human host. The harmfulness of numerous pathogens in people may not be an objective of determination itself, but instead an unplanned by-result of choice that works on different attributes. Broadening into new surroundings is a

V. vulnificus showed high incidences of antibiotic resistance (Table 3) which can be attributed to excessive usage of antimicrobials in humans and contaminations of coastal and estuarine waters with the agricultural runoff or wastewater treatment plants. Residual water from the industries, where products containing microbial agents are prepared and washed, when released directly into the sewage system may ultimately flow into the sea (Livesley et al. 1997) Antibiotic resistant V. vulnificus introduced into the marine environments readily contaminates the shellfish, which concentrate the marine microflora via filter feeding, subsequently causing a mutation in the cellular DNA (Zulkifli et al. 2009).

In conclusion unknown number fifty-four is a part of the Enterobacteriaceae family. The unknown is Enterobacter asburiae. Although there were bacteria in which the result was not known of the each test, Enterobacter asburiae best fit the characteristics tested based off what was available via Bergey’s Manual. According to Koth, Boniface, Chancem and Hanes, E. asburiae is one of the bacteria that help with the digestión of food that is normally found in the body and is an opportunist infection (2012). E. asburiae is found in food, wáter, and soil( Koth, et al., 2012). sold According to the Center for Diesease Control and Prevention (CDC), enterobacteriaceae family cause respiratory infections, and uirany tract infections. Most cases caused