SCIE207 Lab4 PT2 worksheet revised and redone for IP 4

The respiratory system and the cardiovascular system work together by oxygen being inhaled by the mouth and nostrils and then the oxygen enters the respiratory system. When the oxygen enters the respiratory system, oxygen enters the alveoli which are located in the lungs and then it diffuses through the alveolar wall. After when this process is complete, it enters the cardiovascular system. The oxygen is then mixed with hemoglobin, which forms oxyhaemoglobin. The blood is then circulated all around the body. While the blood is mixed with the oxygen, a waste gas gets produced, which is carbon dioxide. The excess gas then exists out by going through the respiratory system and then it is exhaled out from the mouth.

The hypothalamus will send a signal to the pancreas to release glucagon, the hormone responsible for increasing glucose, to the blood. After glucagon enters the blood it will go to the target cell to bind to the receptor. After it reaches the receptor, glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen, which will then secrete glucose to the blood thus increasing the blood glucose levels. This is an example of positive feedback. Once the receptors in blood detect that the glucose in the blood is increasing, the target cells will then send a signal to the to stop the stimulation of glucagon. This is called negative

Please the following information as a guideline for compiling the lab report. Only one lab report per group is required. You do not have to answer the questions listed during the actual dissection, but you should be familiar with what is being asked of you before beginning. The lab must be typed and divided into sections according to systems (Meaning each

These tissues are insulin-sensitive and respond to increased blood insulin levels by a rapid and reversible increase in glucose transport (Abel et al., 2001). Abel et al. suggest that this is brought about by the translocation of a latent pool of glucose transporters from an intracellular site to the plasma membrane (2001). In the absence of insulin, GLUT4 storage vesicles might slowly fuse with endosomes, vesicles in the red blood cell (Kraegen et al., 1993). Insulin would then shift GLUT4 from this cycle to a pathway that takes GLUT4 directly to the cell surface (Abel et al., 2001). Glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue is transported by GLUT4 is promoted by insulin based on the need for glucose in the tissue. In response to insulin, the pancreas senses the hyperglycemic state in tissues and releases insulin for uptake of

These levels of blood sugar are tightly controlled by a pair of hormones produced by the islet cells of the pancreas; insulin and glucagon. These hormones serve to keep the blood glucose level at a normal range of 70mg/dl and 110mg/dl. Insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas at high levels usually in response to elevated blood sugar levels which occurs after a meal. Insulin when secreted causes the fat cells to take up glucose from the blood thereby reducing the blood sugar levels to normal range. In the event of a drop below normal range in the blood sugar levels, the alpha cells of the pancreas secrete glucagon which causes the liver to release some of the stored glucose from its cells into the blood stream thereby returning the low blood sugar level to normal range. This tight control of the blood sugar level by the pancreas prevents excessive high or low blood sugar for extensive periods of time. If for any reason, this control is lost by the beta cells of the pancreas, insulin becomes unable to function correctly which leads to high blood sugar levels for extensive periods of time; a condition known as Diabetes

After consumption of food, carbohydrates are broken down into glucose in the digestive system which is then absorbed in the blood causing an increase in the blood glucose levels. This rise stimulates the secretion of insulin from the pancreas beta cells which controls the blood glucose levels. Insulin also allows other cells to allow glucose into them by binding on specific cellular receptors thus facilitating the entry of glucose into the cell. Increased secretion of insulin by the pancreas and its subsequent utilization in the cells leads to low blood glucose levels which then result to decreased secretion of insulin. The production of insulin is also affected by disease which causes the dynamics of blood glucose to change when insulin production decreases, entry of glucose into the cells is inhibited which results to hyperglycemia. A similar situation occurs where the insulin secreted by the pancreas is not properly used by the target cells. Insulin secretion may also increase causing the blood sugar levels to become low which is hypoglycemia where the amount of glucose in tissue cells and muscles is higher than that in blood. Diabetes is the disease that occurs when a person's insulin levels are either too high or too low which results in imbalance in blood glucose levels. Type-1 diabetes occurs in those who produce little or no insulin at all while type-2 diabetes occurs in those who produce too high levels of

Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar. Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and kidneys. (Columbia, 2015)

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ptors and The pancreas is the organ responsible for the maintenance of blood glucose levels. The pancreas is the biggest gland in the body and part of the endocrine system responsible for the production of hormones. Hormones coordinate many body processes and circulate in the blood searching for hormone receptors. Since the pancreas secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, islets of langerhans are situated very close to capillaries in the liver so there is a short diffusion distance. Cells are unresponsive to a hormone if they lack the appropriate receptors. When insulin binds to its specialised receptor protein, it changes the shape of the intracellular portion of the receptors. This activates enzymatic activity causing glucose transporters,

When there is not enough glucose present in the blood the body reacts quickly to increase the blood glucose level returning to set point (5mM). The sensor detects the change and stimulates the alpha cells (in the islets of Langerhans located in the pancreas) to produce glucagon and secrete it into the blood stream. Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells in islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, the effects of glucagon are opposite of the effects induced by the hormone insulin. The two hormones work together to maintain blood glucose levels in balance. From here, the glucagon is released into the body to respond to the low blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down the stored glycogen to be released into the blood as glucose. With the glucose released into the blood this will return the blood glucose levels to the optimum set point (5mM) where the body is functioning properly and the homeostatic system has served its purpose. Both of these processes for low and high blood glucose levels is called a negative feedback loop and is a variation of a homeostatic

From an endocrine functioning perspective, vital hormonal involvement allows the body to achieve such standing. Two of the major hormones that is included in this structures endocrinal portion are known as glucagon and insulin, and are directly produced by the pancreas’ islets of Langerhans (patho 144). These hormones have a purpose in the human body, specifically, sustaining blood sugar levels. A simpler method of understanding both hormones is by considering their purpose as being the exact opposite of one another. For instance, the pancreas secretes glucagon when a human is in a fasting state, signifying someone is unfed. On the other hand, insulin is secreted during the body’s postprandial or fed condition (Pathp 144). Ultimately, the glucagon that is released triggers the liver to eject stored glucose, resulting in increased blood glucose (sugar) levels. Insulin, having the reversed effect, acts as an assistant to glucose in order to help it enter into the cells and also support its storage formation (Patho 144). Insulin, partaking in additional purposes, also plays a critical role in boosting free fatty acid storage and intake while also encouraging protein synthesis. By doing this, the body has created its own source of checks and balances to ensure proper function and

Within the pancreas endocrine cells are formed into islets, which are clusters of endocrine cells. These islets secrete insulin and glucagon, which are the blood glucose regulating hormones. Insulin is released from these islets when the blood glucose levels are too high. It activates muscle tissue and fatty tissue to take in extra blood sugar to help compensate for the high levels in the blood. When the levels are too high, the glucose can’t enter the cells and be used for energy. Glucagon is released when the blood glucose level is too low and helps the body release stored sugar into the blood. If blood glucose gets too low, then the body can’t function right. (“Anatomy and Physiology of the Pancreas”). Of these two hormones insulin is the more important of the two in regards to affecting glucose levels and with helping with the negative feedback loop for regulating blood glucose levels.

This lactate is removed by the liver and is converted into glucose to help maintain blood glucose homeostasis via an increase. Meanwhile, the pancreas contains constituents called pancreatic islets that contain alpha and beta cells, which secrete the glucagon and insulin hormones respectively. Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells when blood glucose concentrations are decreased to signal the liver to hydrolyse glycogen to glucose, ultimately restoring blood glucose concentrations. Moreover, glucagon stimulates the hydrolysis of stored fat and the release of free fatty acids into the blood that results. This aids in providing the body energy when blood glucose levels are low. Thus, glucagon helps to maintain homeostasis during fasting. In contrast, beta cells secrete insulin when blood glucose concentrations increase to promote glucose entry into tissue cells, thus, allowing glucose to be converted into glycogen and fat. Hence, insulin and glucagon have antagonistic functions. During fasting, glucagon levels increases, whilst insulin secretion is reduced, and after meals, the inverse actions

All types of diabetes are related to a deficiency in the hormone insulin, which is secreted by the beta cells os the pancreas. In a healthy person, insulin is produced in response to elevated levels of glucose in the bloodstream and its major role is to control glucose concentration in the blood by letting the glucose enter our cells and lowering its levels. What insulin does is allowing the body cells and tissues to use glucose as a main energy source, it is also responsible for conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage in the muscles and liver cells. The pancreas plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into

As food is consumed and passes through the gastrointestinal tract the body releases specific enzymes, peptides, and hormones to breakdown the food (chyme), absorb the nutrients, and get the nutrients to tissues which need them. This process occurs quickly, within 30 minutes of the chyme entering the small intestines. One hormone of particular interest is insulin, which regulates the body’s blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels are high, after consuming a meal, the pancreas will release insulin from its beta-cells. Insulin inhibits gluconeogenesis of the liver and stores glucose as energy reserves within tissues: muscle, cardiac, liver, and adipose. The coordination of the body’s organs and hormones to release hormones and move glucose out of the blood are critical to preventing hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia, both of which can be deadly (Gropper, 2013).