Science Behind Technology : How It Was Discovered And Science Behind Technology

ROCKVILLE, MD and San Diego, CA (May 20, 2010)— Researchers at the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), a not-for-profit genomic research organization, published results today describing the successful construction of the first self-replicating, synthetic bacterial cell. The team synthesized the 1.08 million base pair chromosome of a modified Mycoplasma mycoides genome. The synthetic cell is called Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0 and is the proof of principle that genomes can be designed in the computer, chemically made in the laboratory and transplanted into a recipient cell to produce a new self-replicating cell controlled only by the synthetic genome.

We tested A type, Alpha type, and mixed type. The key difference between these types are the different genes in Alpha and A type.. These A and alpha type can combine to make a mixed cell via signal transduction pathway. The mixed cells are a combination of A type and Alpha type, these cells can become a haploid, budding haploid, zygote, budding zygote, or a shmoo. A haploid is a single cell. A budding haploid is a single cell with a growth on the side. A zygote is two cells that look like an infinity sign. The budding zygote is 2 cells that are like infinity signs with a growth that looks like a dot. A shmoo looks like a pear, and it the two cells combining together. The mixed type can have shmoos, both haploids, and both zygotes. The A factor and alpha type only have budding haploids and diploids, this is because the A type and Alpha type had nothing to mate with. Single transduction pathways use several steps to produce a cellular response. The yeast cells use G- protein receptors system to mate. G protein receptors are also single transduction pathway. G proteins consist of a signaling molecule, a g protein, G protein coupled receptors and an enzyme. The signaling comes to bind to the G protein on the extracellular side. This causes the G protein coupled receptor to change shape on the cytoplasmic side. When the receptor changes shapes a G protein to bind to it. This activates G

Yeast can reproduce both asexually and sexually, which makes it very easy to grow in the laboratory, as it is very small in size. Mutant yeast can be easily isolated considering yeast consists of a single cell and can be grown as a haploid or diploid. Diploid cells are formed by the combination of MATa and MAT alpha cells. However, under conditions of carbon and nitrogen starvation, the diploid cell will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid microorganisms. Because haploids only have one set of genes, its allele can determine the corresponding phenotype. By mating the mutants, the genetics can be carried out through replica plating with the YPD plates (1). Saccharomyces cerevisiae is one of the most commonly studied strains of yeast, in

A basic method in which we get specific genes integrated with another organism’s chromosome is as follows: Isolate the DNA from which selected gene is to be taken from and treat it with enzymes that will cut out that specific gene. These genes are then inserted into bacteria and grown into colonies being

What are transgenic organisms? How are they made? Are they safe? Are they a good source of food? These are all questions that are asked about transgenic organisms. Through this paper we will discuss these questions and give viable answers. We will look in detail into the role these organisms play in today’s society.

In recent decades, there have been many advances in technology, specifically in the field of genetic engineering, that allows precise control over changing the genes in an organism. Today, it is possible to incorporate new genes from one species into a completely unrelated species through genetic engineering. The

cerevisiae were obtained and labeled accordingly. These served as the starting point for the experiment. An untainted YPD plate is retrieved and sectioned into three areas and labeled: “A”, “B”, and “C”. A small sample of each strain of yeast is taken and lightly spread onto its own section of the YPD plate. The plate will then be left in the incubator at 30 ° C for 24 hours. In the time preceding time five more media plates are acquired and labeled according to a key that indicates the type of media it is. After the time of incubation the original YPD plate is then replicated on SD+His+Leu, SD+His+Ura, SD+His+Leu+Ura and YPD plates (YPD being the control). Each plate needs to be labeled in the same manner as the first media plate so observations can be correctly made. Each replica place should also be labeled according to which strains are going to be transferred to it. A cylinder shape block, with a compression ring is used along with a precut section of velvet in order to transfer an identical pattern of the yeast on the original plate. All of the plates are reentered into the incubator for 48 hours, then the new growth is observed and

point mutation, frameshift, etc.). The advantage of using a synthetic system like ours is that the entire system is located on a plasmid and we hypothesise that the majority of mutations resulting in resistance will occur in the plasmid sequence. Unlike natural systems that contain many factors with genes encoded throughout the genome, our synthetic system allows us to monitor mutations in a more tractable manner. Further studies of the constant evolution of microecologies using this or other synthetic systems may allow researchers to tune in on “evolutionary steps” in a more accountable manner.

In 1978, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer introduced recombinant DNA technology that resulted in the biotechnology “boom” (Ballard et al.)3 and with it gave rise to genetic engineering. After Cohen and

The process of genetic engineering has evolved throughout the past several decades. In the process, the organism’s DNA is modified by combining foreign genetic material into the original DNA strand ("UNL's AgBiosafety for Educators."). In order to insert the

The use of recombinant DNA technology has been a huge advancement to science. In the early 1970s the first recombinant DNA was produced (“1972 First”, 2013). Researchers Stanley Cohen and Hebert Boyer used restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites, and then fused them back together to form their recombinant vector (“1972 First”, 2013; Cederbaum, S., et al., 1984). Through transformation the vector is then inserted into a host cell to amplify their hybrid DNA, also known as recombinant DNA (“1972 First”, 2013). This technology allowed scientists to insert a human gene into the genetic material of common bacteria. This was a huge break through for science and medicine. Now the recombinant DNA could be used to produce protein encoded by the human gene (“1972 First”, 2013; Cederbaum, S., et al., 1984).

New research techniques have made it possible to engineer and explore differences in the sets of chromosomes in organisms. This has been a technological revolution during the last decade. Allowing scientists to be able to explore DNA to a new extent. During the process of this research it has come apparent that foreign DNA inserted into self-replicating genetic elements such as bacteria plasmids can replicate. This breakthrough has also shown that the plasmids that have been used can also be used to change the genetic constitution of other organisms (1).

Saccharomyces cerevisiaes, or baker’s yeasts, unicellular fungi are useful in understanding genetics and molecular biology, due to the ability to quickly map a phenotype-producing gene to a region in their genome. Yeast mutants are used a tool for the study of cellular function, DNA repair mechanisms and cell cycle control. As a model organism, S. cerevisiae is one of the simplest eukaryote organism, having not only most major signaling pathways conserved, but also consisting of a genome of approximately 12.1 million base pairs in sixteen chromosomes. S. cerevisiaes, like other model organisms, have properties that make them suitable for biological studies: rapid growth, easy mutant isolation, a sequenced genetic system and a versatile DNA transformation system, as homologous recombination is used almost exclusively as their DNA repair mechanism.

One paper used bypassing proteins in the replicative process of yeast to find that modification of proteins Sld2 and Sld3 by a modifier protein is only required for replication activation (Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). Sld3 modification allows it to bind one end of a bridge-like protein Dpb11 while Sld2 binds the other. The Sld modifying protein modifies up to two hundred different proteins and is activated by other modifying proteins used earlier in the replication process and its levels are kept low in these earlier stages as to avoid replicating DNA too early (Labib, 2010; Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). This paper could have suggested a role for the Sld2/3-Dpb11 interaction but does provide greater insight into various modifying proteins’ functions in replication (Zegerman and Diffley, 2006).

benefit from these global initiatives, but they should be empowered to play a leading role in