Sequency Hereditary Material

This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history of DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.

This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history of DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.

Also, DNA sequencing allows matching organ donors with recipients in transplant programs (Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2008). Another societal impact due to DNA sequencing is the use of it to identify paternity and other family relationships (Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2008). In addition, DNA sequencing has allowed the study of evolution through germline mutations in lineages by studying the migration of different population groups based on maternal genetic inheritance (Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2008). Thus, DNA sequencing has provided DNA identification and the understanding of evolution in

Sanger sequencing is the established technology that is used to validate millions of putative genetic variations identified by next-generation sequencing technology. However, Sanger sequencing throughput is limited compared to next-generation sequencing; its workflow is slow, labour-intensive, and error-prone.

First a genome is sequenced by doing a developing a karyotype or fluorescence in situ hybridization, a picture of a persons’ chromosomes, a cytogenic map is made, depicting the banding pattern and the location of genes. A linking map is then made to order genetic markers, then a physical map which shows the distance between markers, and then the DNA sequence which determines each nucleotide (Reece, 427). After the genome sequencing, all the proteins that person produces (those produced by the expressible genes) are known which can then determine which functions could be affected by an extra or missing protein. Also when enough genomes are known, they could be compared side by side to see trends with people with diseases to determine what exactly is affected that then leads to the disease. Henceforth the doctor (or whoever analyzes the genome) could potentially conclude what diseases the person is likely to have and diagnoses medicines accordingly. However, if the information becomes as popular as anticipated, everyone would have their genome sequence—resulting in the debate of weather health insurance or employers could view and judge a perspective costumer or employee based on their genome

DNA sequencing is the act of identifying the exact order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. DNA sequencing did not begin until the 1970s-sanger sequencing method was developed. DNA sequencing has allowed scientists to make advances in the biological and medical fields. While DNA sequencing has contributed to major advancements in the medical field, it has also raised ethical questions so those advances should be used on humans. DNA sequencing has allowed for the human genome project to be completed under budget as well as ahead of schedule. The goal of the human genome project was to sequence the entire human genome.

Sanger sequencing was developed in 1977. It was the most widely used sequencing method for 40 years. Nowadays, the “Next-Gen” (next-generation) sequencing methods are more commonly used, especially for large-scale genome analysis. However, Sanger method remains in wide use for smaller scale projects.

The field of genomics is quickly and steadily gaining momentum in the field of systematics. Based on an organism’s genetics, it applies novel methods of DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to sequence, construct, and analyze the structure, and consequently, the function, of entire genomes, using the resulting genetic information from different specimens in fine-scale genetic mapping. Advancements in other fields such as human biomedicine may also be dependent on progress made in genomics, especially unresolved problems focused on changes in genes triggered or disrupted in development, susceptibility to infectious disease, mechanisms of DNA recombination and genome plasticity which cannot be adequately interpreted without a precise evolutionary context or hierarchy.

The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within cells. In short order, their discovery yielded ground-breaking insights into the genetic code and protein synthesis. During the 1970s and 1980s, it helped to produce new and powerful scientific techniques, specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineering, rapid gene sequencing, and monoclonal antibodies, techniques on which today 's multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry is founded. Major current advances in

In recent decades the advancements achieved in bioengineering have helped us develop a better understanding of the origins from which humans and other living creatures spur. The discovery of the Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the key to all bioengineering. The DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. An allele is one of two or more forms of the DNA sequence of a particular gene. Each gene can have different alleles. Sometimes different alleles can result in different traits. Occasionally different DNA sequences of alleles will have the same

The human genome is essentially a set of instructions that consists of various DNA molecules that are unique to each individual human being. This huge collection of genes inside each and every one human’s cells dictate trait that are inherited from ther parents, which can range from one’s hair color to one’s height. Genes are made up of Deoxyribosenucleic Acid (DNA), which consist of nucleotide bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). Adenine is paired with Thymine and Cytosine is paired with Guanine. This DNA is then paired with a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule, to essentially come together and created two long strands that wrap around each other into a double helix formation (twisted ladder). Like mentioned before, these DNA strands make up a gene which can be found on something called a chromosome in the cell. These chromosomes contain the information required for the way the human body is built. In humans, the chromosomes are usually found in the heart of the cell known as the nucleus. The nucleus contains forty-six chromosomes (also known as twenty-three chromosome pairs): half are from the mother and half are from the father. The first twenty-two chromosome pairs are known as autosomes that house

Aiming to reduce costs and improve quality and efficiency, the New Generation Sequencers appeared. With the surging of NGS technologies, today it is viable to sequence in a particular subject with a suspected genetic disease or with tendency to that compound disease, up to thousands of genes at the same time (Pareek & Smoczynski 2011). There are different existing methods, however all shared similar features about Massive Parallel sequencing reactions. All of them required a pre-determined library sample preparation through DNA break-up and amplification by custom adaptors. Each library fragment is amplified on a solid surface (cell flow) by covalent-attached DNA linkers (oligonucleotides) which hybridize the library adaptors. This amplification creates millions of DNA clusters, each originated from a single library fragment. Each fragment will act as a single sequencing reaction. After this, each machine provides a raw data at the end of the sequencing run. This run data is a collection of DNA sequences that were generated of each cluster.

In any case, however, this method offers great advantages. For instance, researchers have found it to allow high density information to be stored in very small space. For instance, it is estimated that one gram of single-strand DNS could store as one Exabyte of data (Church, Gao, & Kosuri, 2012). Other scholars, such as Xiao, Lu, Qin, & Lai, (2006) reported that the use of DNA storage facilitates the use of DNA as information carrier and the modern biological technology as the main implementation tool that makes sequence hybridization and other techniques of isolation, synthetization, amplification, digestion and sequencing of DNA very easy. Other researcher, such as, Glenn (2011), indicated that this technology gave researchers like himself tools that are opening new avenues of investigation and developing techniques, which offer answers to long-standing ecological evolutionary curiosity.

Another big achievement was the recognition of complete genome of Haemophilus influenza in 1995; which gave new directions to immunization.

We face significant challenges such as sustainability of food and energy, improvement of health, and protection of our environment. Life sciences have a vital role in all these areas, and HPC-enabled bioinformatics is key to finding solutions. Increasingly inexpensive genome sequencing and ‘omics' technologies drive new progress in bioinformatics and computational systems' biology, with applications in