Sexpecific Cell Signaling Summary

Sapolsky goes on to explain how stress in our lives can also lead to loss of libido and reproduction. During periods of stress, males can see a decrease in circulating testosterone due to a release of specific hormones in the brain which basically shut down the activity of the testes, which are responsible for testosterone release. On the female side, the author tells us that studies have shown how stress suppresses estrogen production, which in turn disrupts sexual behavior in women. (Sapolsky, 1994. p. 124)

Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers is a book about the physiology of stress. It gets into great detail about what exactly is going on inside the body during periods of high stress, and also what short and long term affects are caused by that stress. The first chapter give a brief description of each chapter in the rest of the book. Each subsequent chapter explains different stressors, levels of stress, and hormonal responses to stress. Many of the chapters also include research and discoveries on how stress affects the human body, many of which are somewhat recent discoveries, only occurring in the last one hundred years or so. Robert Sapolsky is able to explain to his readers much about the physiology of stress and how endocrinology plays the most

Viewed from an evolutionary standpoint, in early times stress caused the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system resulting in an outpouring of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids that were essential to the life-preserving fight or flight reactions of primitive man (Anthony 1988). However, the nature of stress for the individual today is different. It is only occasionally and unexpectedly that one is confronted with overwhelming, life-threatening stresses. Present stresses arise from everyday stresses of work, finances and school. The problem is that the body still continues to respond in the same fashion as primitive times. This makes the large release of hormones very harmful. They can cause an increase in blood pressure, damage muscle tissue, lead to infertility, inhibit growth, damage the hippocampus and suppress the immune system (Carlson 1994). It is therefore, important that individuals learn to control the stresses in their lives. The more detrimental coping behaviors will cause a larger change

The hormones released during the acute stress response is considered the “master switch” in controlling the person’s behavioral and physiological adaptation to stress. (Mannironi, et al., 2013) The targets of these hormones are the cognitive, wake sleep, and reward and fear centers of the brain. (Chrousos, 2009) The growth, gastrointestinal, cardiorespiratory, metabolic, reproductive and thyroid hormone axis, and immune systems are also effected. (Chrousos, 2009) Optimal basal

“Men and women have different levels of certain hormones; for example, men have a higher concentration of androgens such as testosterone, while women have a higher concentration of estrogens.” (Steadyhealth website, 2015, Difference between male and female structures (Mental and Physical))

Our behaviour and emotion are determined by two hormones, testosterone and cortisol. Testosterone determines dominance and assertiveness, while cortisol controls the reactivity to stress. Research done by Cuddy and her team showed that higher levels of testosterone leads to higher self-confidence, whereas lower levels of cortisol leads to a fall in anxiety and an improved de-stress ability (Cuddy, Wilmuth & Carney, 2012). Therefore, research result has established the theory that human can handle stress better if we were to be able to control the hormone level.

Long-term alterations in the secretion include a glutocorticoid hormones cortisol via the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal access personal play crucial role in mediating the link between chronic stress exposure and ability to variety of diseases. (Stalder et al. 2012) Some of the biological consequences of such arousal were first identified by Selye (1956) as the General Adaptation Syndrome. Selye noted t h a t a principal characteristic of this response is an elevation in cortisol level. As a result of this early work and of more recent laboratory-based research, cortisol is now often regarded a s a "stress hormone" and as an objective marker of stress (Baum et al., 1982). (Pollard 1995)Registering for stressors cognitive affective states

Cortisol is a steroid hormone, found in the glucocorticoids (GC) class of hormones. It controls many physiological processes, vital for the survival of humans. This includes “metabolism, immune response, cardiovascular activity, and brain function” (Chung et al. 2011). Over and above control functions, cortisol also helps regulate blood pressure and its use of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. There is a strong correlation between stressful situations and circulating cortisol levels. The body response to stressful physiological or psychological situations by increasing the amount of cortisol secreted. This secretion causes the breakdown of muscle protein, which leads to the release of amino acids into the bloodstream. These

showed that prenatal stress decreases cell turnover and proliferation in the hypothalamus of adult rats, which reduces structural plasticity and reduces the response to stress in adulthood. This study also showed that when prenatally stressed rats were stressed in adulthood the females showed an increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone suggesting it to be an up-regulation in the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis. Males showed no elevation of corticosterone levels. Increase in adrenocorticotropic hormone with no effect of adult stress and a decrease in the corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA in the hypothalamus showed a down-regulation. The author concludes that this makes prenatally stressed females less reactive to later life stressors than

Interestingly, when a mother is stressed during her pregnancy; concerning behavioral development can cultivate in the child. Additionally, stress has other negative effects on the neonate, leading to poor outcomes including; low birthweight, fussiness, prematurity inadaptability, unpredictability, and irritability (Gotlib, & Hammen, 2014). These effects can further complicate the mothers’ ability to bond with her infant, leading to maladaptive developmental behavior in the child. “The corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) regulates the endocrine stress response precipitates abnormal biological,

One common theme in mental disorders (MD) is the alteration in the stress related brain system via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. HPA axis is involved in regulating the immune system, mood, energy, digestion and temperature. It is pivotal in responses to distress, stress and damage. Activation of the stress system through the HPA axis causes central behavioral and peripheral changes that improve the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis (Tsigos and Chrousos, 2002). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is the chief pathway that responds to stress. The principle hormones involved in the HPA axis are corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol in humans and corticosterone in rodents). Research suggests one possible biological link between stress, anxiety and depression may involve a corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptor (Magalhaes et al., 2010).

CBT is a better treatment alternative to pharmacological treatments because it targets the underlying cause of the disorder by reducing allostatic load through teaching stress management skills, and prevents other health conditions linked to chronic stress such as cardiovascular disease (Michopoulos, Mancini, Loucks, & Berga, 2013). Additionally, it prevents potential side effects of HRT and ovulation, and can foster better overall wellbeing and parenting skills of potential mothers. Given that there is a direct relationship between the psychogenic stress, increased cortisol and neuroendocrine imbalance, and negative health outcomes, it is important for physicians to be cognizant of the psychological, emotional, and social stressors of their patients, as they might directly cause their conditions, or may interfere with the patients’ ability to comply with their treatments, and recover. Since there may be many other illnesses that are directly influenced by stress, more research should be done on how stress interacts with other illness. Physicians should emphasize the importance of mental health and stress management techniques on patients’ health

Stress is a part of our daily lives but our body has a mechanism that keeps us at homeostasis. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA) maintains and controls our response to stimuli that disrupts this mechanism. From the periventricular nucleus in the hypothalamus, corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) is released traveling to the anterior pituitary through the hypophyseal portal vascular system. This triggers the releases of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which travels to the adrenal cortex and stimulates the release of cortisol. Once the balance is restored, negative feedback inhibits the release of the hormones (Figure 1). If stress is prolonged and the levels of cortisol or CRH remain high this balance can be disrupted causing a maladaptive response or allostatic load. This can lead to emotional disorders like depression and anxiety, heart disease, and diabetes.

The cingulate gyrus is the part of the limbic system that is responsible for keeping emotions and aggression under control (Wright et al., 2008). Research on the differences in this area between males and females concluded that females are better retaining emotions internally and are better at displaying emotional behavior than males. Females have higher levels of serotonin. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate impulses and control behavior. Low levels of serotonin are associated with antisocial behavior (Beaver, 2009). Likewise, females also usually have a higher level of amino butyric than males. This is a neurotransmitter that regulates violence and aggression (Wright et al., 2009). The different levels of certain neurotransmitters found in males and females provide a great deal of explanation for the different levels of aggression, violence and criminal behavior found between the sexes.

Cortisol is a hormone which is released when a individual is below stress. Probably the most long-established which will also be experienced via each person is sustained stress and may cause an infection very quickly.