Staphylococcus Aureus Research Paper

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA, is a bacterium that is resistant to many available high- level beta-lactam antibiotics, which include penicillins, “antistaphylococcal” penicillins and cephalosporins. Staphyloccoci are the most important bacteria that cause disease in humans. MRSA is sometimes branded as a nosocomial infection as it usually plagues patients that are receiving treatment in a hospital. The skin is the most common site of infection, where MRSA can cause cellulitis, folliculitis, or boils in the skin, but can also commonly be found in the nose, underarm, groin, upper respiratory tract, intestine, vagina and rectal areas of the body. MRSA infections occur with there is a break in the skin that allows the Methicillin resistant

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a spherical bacteria which is known to produce a cytotoxin called Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PLV) which destroys leukocytes, and kills tissue (Lina et al., 1999). Five percent of strains of Staphylococcus are known to produce the disease-causing toxin (Lina et al., 1999), but though the amount of PLV-producing strains is somewhat small, the strains which produce PLV are apparently resistant to vancomycin, an antibiotic commonly used to treat staph infections (CDC, 2002). The first recorded case of S. aureus resistance to vancomycin was a reduction in sensitivity to the antibiotic observed in Japan, and has since spread to the United States (CDC, 2002). The most common source of infection of these drug-resistant bacteria are actually in hospitals, wherein the patients are exposed to the bacteria and subsequently infected (CDC, 2002).

Necrotizing fasciitis Staphylococcus auerus can occur in many forms, one being methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus auerus (MRSA). This specific strand of bacterium that has evolved to become antibiotic resistant. This makes MRSA necrotizing fasciitis almost impossible to treat with antibiotics alone, and often requires extensive surgical procedures. In The New England Journal of Medicine, researchers highlighted MRSA as a root cause of numerous cases of monomicrobial necrotizing fasciitis reported in Los Angeles in 2003 (7).

MRSA which is short for Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus is a type of staph or skin infection that is completely resistant to some of the strongest antibiotics. When Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Auereus was first discovered several decades ago when it spread in many hospitals and then into the community, this infection was known as one of the first infections to be completely resistant to the most powerful antibiotics. Staph infections have been known since the early twentieth century as one of the deadliest diseases. Staphylococcal infections are diseases caused by different types of staphylococcal bacteria. Twenty to thirty percent of all healthy people get this infection in the nostrils and or the skin. Staph

In particular, S. aureus isolates of concern to the medical community are methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant strains, which are also persistent colonizers. Increased risk factors for S. aureus infection are persistent colonization, patients with type 1 diabetes, intravenous drug users, patients undergoing hemodialysis, surgical patients, and patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Patients with qualitative or quantitative defects in leukocyte function are also at

MRSA research was done by Pantosti and Venditti to supports the importance of prevention control. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus also known as MRSA, is an infectious disease that is spread from skin-to-skin contact. MRSA is very easily spread in the healthcare scenes of which most patient are susceptible to the ‘staph’ bacteria would usually be seeking treatment of other illness for the infection itself. If a healthcare worker who touch an infected person has the possibility of transferring the MRSA to an uninfected patient might spread the bacteria. Besides in the hospital environment, anyone can get MRSA on their body from contact with an infected wound or by sharing personal items, such as towels or razors, that have touched infected skin. MRSA infection risk can be increased when a person is in activities or places that involve crowding, skin-to-skin contact, and shared equipment or supplies. People including athletes, day-care and school students, military personnel in barracks, and those who recently received inpatient medical care are at higher risk (CDC, 2016).

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common skin infection contracted in the community and healthcare systems. Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was originally resistant to the antibiotic methicillin which is a form of penicillin. MRSA is now resistant to many other antibiotics such as; penicillin, vancomycin, and erythromycin (Sakoulas. G., Moellering. R.C.Jr., 2008). What this means is that the antibiotics have lost their ability to control or kill the bacteria. MRSA was first seen in healthcare in the 1940’s (Herwaldt. L. A., 1999). Since it is commonly contracted and can live in many environments, we now see MRSA in the community. MRSA can only be contracted by physical touch with an infected individual. If

Although hospital-acquired MRSA seems to be more prevalent than community-acquired, they both evolved from prevalent MSSA upon acquisition of SCCmec. SCCmec is staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec, which is a mobile genetic element of Staphylococcus bacterial species. Hospital MRSA only contains one of four SCCmec types (I–IV), but the introduction of community-acquired MRSA is deeply associated with the obtaining of SCCmec IV, the smallest element and one that grants only resistance to lactams. It is also found that community MRSA is more diverse genetically than hospital MRSA because of a consequence of the increased frequency of the introduction of SCCmec IV compared with other types of SCCmec. These changes in the frequency of a

Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive, cluster forming bacterium which shows positive results in catalase and nitrate reduction tests. It is considered as a harmful pathogen for human and animal beings and has resistance to many classes of antimicrobial agents. The most important example is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), the first clinical isolate, reported at the end of 1960, within a year after the introduction of methicillin (Jevons et al., 1963). Afterwards, it has been frequently disseminated throughout the world and reported serious hospital associated infections in 1970s.Several MRSA clones have emerged in past four decades, but major hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA)clones identified in five accepted clonal lineages by population genetic studies. Genotypes within these lineages have developed resistance to all known antibiotics. Besides, some significant risk factors, like surgery, recent hospitalization and antimicrobial treatment have potential roles in HA-MRSA infection in patients.

aureus has a remarkable ability to develop antibiotic resistance, leading to four distinct resistance waves that have occurred in the past sixty years. The advent of PRSA, then MRSA resistance has resulted in a steady decline in the efficacy of these valuable antibiotics. The MRSA first emerged as a nosocomial pathogen (HA-MRSA; in the 1960s), then further surfaced as a community based infection (CA-MRSA; in the 1990s) and has subsequently increased the staphylococcal disease burden. It is a global public health problem and represents the most commonly identified antibiotic-resistant pathogen.

Nowadays seen as an important opportunistic pathogen “Staphylococcus epidermidis is one of thirty-three known species belonging to the genus Staphylococcus” (5). It can be found within the mucous membranes, as a part of the skin flora, and in animals. If S. epidermidis comes in contact with a person who has a compromised immune system, it may cause infection merely to those inside of hospital settings. It like to live on the surface, but once inside a host can cause serious problems. There are many different strands of Staphylococcus, but this particular bacterium was “first differentiated from other forms of Staphylococcus in 1884 by Friedrich Julius Rosenbach" (6). S. flexneri causes dysentery that results in the destruction of the epithelial

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has been well known for being resistant to β-lactam antibiotics, which are the most common antimicrobial agents used to fight staphylococcal infection. Previous studies reported that methicillin resistance in staphylococci was carried by a specific mobile genetic element (MGE) called staphylococcal chromosome cassette mec (SCCmec), which carries with it several virulence factors as well

The genus known as Staphylococcus is a typical resident of the skin and mucous membranes, which is comprised of at least forty different species. A class of nonmotile Gram-positive bacteria that lack spores, its cells are spherically shaped and commonly organize in irregular clusters. As a group, the staphylococci are the suspected culprits of a significant amount of deaths and nosocomial infections across the United States. A facultative anaerobe, S. aureus is considered the most virulent of the species and also one of the most resistant non-spore forming microbes. Its ability to endure in extreme environments and combat the efforts of various disinfectants and antibiotics make it a worrisome agent in healthcare settings.

The isolated CN S. aureus were neither resistant to cefoxitin nor vancomycin. In contrary, the cefoxitin and vancomycin resistance patterns of the isolated CP S. aureus isolates referred that, out of 46 CP S. aureus, 7 (15.2%) isolates were resistant to both cefoxitin and vancomycin (MRSA + VRSA) while 12 (26%) isolates were cefoxitin resistant while were vancomycin sensitive (MRSA + VSSA) concluded that the whole CP S. aureus showing cefoxitin resistance was 19 (41.3%) which indicated MRSA percentage. On the other hand, the remaining 27 CP S. aureus isolates were sensitive to both cefoxitin and vancomycin (MSSA + VSSA) with an incidence of 58.7%. While, the whole CP S. aureus isolates showing vancomycin sensitive

Recent research by Khokhlova et al. found that MRSA cases among S. Aureus isolates across Siberia were found at a rate of 22% in hospitals, compared to a community infection rate of 2.9% (2015). Traditional antibiotic treatments such as penicillin are often proven ineffective in these cases, as in the case of Fomda et al., which found a resistance rate of 85.46% at a tertiary care hospital (2014).