Statistical Learning Can Not Be Fully Characterized By Only Implicit Process Essay

After reading through chapter six, I began reading chapter seven of our psychology text titled, Learning. Learning is something we do everyday even we don’t realize it. While reading chapter seven, I learned that there are three different types of learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning. Classical conditioning stands for two types of stimuli linking providing us the tools to have a reaction; this is the type of learning that involves automatic behaviors. Operant conditioning is the type of learning that causes a change in behavior, in reaction to consequences; this is the behavior that involves choosing of choices. Lastly, cognitive learning is the obtaining of new skills, behaviors, and information through

During the last few decades memory researchers have shown interest in both explicit and implicit memory, drawn comparisons between them and explored techniques to measure them in a variety of settings including advertising and communication effectiveness (Goode, 2007; Samu & Krishnan, 2010; Yoo, 2007). Explicit memory refers to conscious and intentional recollection or retrieval of previously stored information or experiences, and is assessed by traditional tests of recognition and recall. In contrast, implicit memory refers to changes in task performance or observed behavior produced by priming effects of prior experiences without the conscious or intentional retrieval of those experiences (Graf & Masson, 2013). Memory researchers have empirically investigated this unconscious nature of implicit memory by exploring dissociations between explicit and implicit memory (Gopie, Craik, & Hasher, 2011; Mulligan, 2012) in a sense that certain variables like level of processing and divided attention at stimuli exposure impact explicit memory but leave implicit memory unaffected (Bechtel, 2008; Spataro et al., 2013).

Since the early 1900’s psychologists have developed theories about how the human brain develops and how humans learn. Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood (Wells, 2011). There are many factors that play vital roles in how we learn, some of which are intelligence, reasoning and memory.

In a diagram created by Hall (1998), implicit memory is characterized as nonconscious, nonverbal, emotional, and procedural; whereas explicit memory is conscious, verbal and holistic. In depth, explicit memory that is conscious can be recalled intentionally. For example, trying to recall a name or phone number. In contrast, implicit memory consists of motor skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort, such as riding a bike or climbing a staircase. (Feldman, 2011, p.152)

Also, his aim which is to give a complete theory of human nature is way over-ambitious. Yet, this can be argued that cognitive psychology has identified unconscious processes, like our memory (Tulving, 1972), processing information (Bargh &Chartrand, 1999), and social psychology has shown the significance of implicit processing (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). These findings have confirmed unconscious processes in human behaviour.

In Behaviorism, learning is a change in observable behavior. The environment causes behavior and there is a one-way correlation between the interactions among behavior, environment, and personal factors (Walsh, 2016). In Cognitivism, learning is related with distinct changes among states of knowledge rather than with changes in the odds of response. It focuses more on the notion of the learning process and the information is accepted, organized, saved, and restored by the brain. In the Social

In the presented review, I aim to critically discuss this paper. I start with criticising Mackintosh’s approach of treating cognitive and associative processes as two distinct. Then, I examine Mackintosh’s point of view on animal learning. I conclude that Machintosh’s (1997) main claim about the importance of the associative learning is supported by subsequent research. Nevertheless, it is important not to neglect either associative, or cognitive approach, because they are not fundamentally different, and, at least in humans, both of them play a significant role.

“Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found it to be governed by four related mechanisms: attentional processes, retention processes, production processes, and incentive and motivational processes” (Schultz & Schultz, 2013, p. 335). First, there are various changing forces that can effect attentional processes (Schultz & Schultz, 2013). According to Bandura, “observational learning or modeling will not occur unless the subject pays attention to the model” (Schultz & Schultz, 2013). For example, even though Antwone was not raised by his biological parents, he had several influences in his life.

The subjects were given mimeographed answer forms that were assumed to match the ones in front of the test takers. The subjects answer forms contained the correct answers so that they could keep track of the test takers scores. There were two tasks consisting of twenty-five questions each. The first consisted of household objects and was female oriented. The second consisted of mechanical objects and was male oriented. There was only one task completed during each experimental session chosen by the experimenter. The instructions given to each subject emphasized that a person’s performance is influenced by factors such as luck, ability, and effort. These factors were told to be kept in mind as well as the tone and hesitation in the test takers voice.

Saive, A., Royet, J., Garcia, S., Thévenet, M., & Plailly, J. (2015). "What-Where-Which" episodic retrieval requires conscious recollection and is promoted by semantic knowledge. Plos ONE, 10(12), 1-13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143767

In this experiment, we will investigate whether previous participation in a confirmation bias experiment plus full knowledge of confirmation bias and the Wason 2-4-6 paradigm will lead to a higher initial success rate with future testing. A confirmation bias usually occurs when participants are trying to confirm their beliefs during an experiment. During these experiments, participants results varied between confirmatory and disconfirmatory. The Tukey HSD that was performed for the experiments showed some significance in certain areas. For instance, there was a statistical significance for the total number of guesses between rule one and rule three. More simply, in the first experiment the results showed participants used confirmatory method more for rule one than rule three. For the second experiment participants had more knowledge about the experiment, so their use of the confirmatory method decreased. However, in the second experiment participants used disconfirmatory more for rule three than they did in rule one. Furthermore, all the experiments were similar, because participants had to guess a rule based off a three-number sequence.

Do you remember how you learned how to ride a bike, read a book, or read a book? These and many more activities you are allowed to do are all cause of procedural memory. Procedural memory are the motor skills that you have developed from repeated times. These things, such as walking, talking, eating, start when you are born. You do these motor skills and actions so much that they become more of a habit and you do not notice that you are actually do them. People do not stop and say to their selves “Remember to breath, in, then out” or “to walk, you put your right foot out first, then your left”. That would make life a little more difficult than it already is. Humans and animals can learn with feedback. For example, when we start driving, we will learn the amount of pressure we have to put on the peddle for the car not to go to fast or too slow. “Perceptual learning training with feedback is not formally different from that experienced by a rat required to choose between a triangle and circle, say, when one of these is followed by a given outcome (e.g., access to food) and one is not. Contemporary associative theories of animal discrimination learning (e.g., that proposed by Rescorla & Wagner, 1972) provide an explanation of such learning” (Mitchell & Hall, 2014). Another habit we have as humans are is superstitious learning. Superstitious learning is “actions performed even when there is no causal relationship between the action and its consequences” (Eichenbaum, 2008). For

To identify my personal theory, it is important to understand what learning is. Learning takes many different methods. Ormond (2016) says learning [is] a long-term change in mental pictures and/or associations based on your experience. Ormond (2016) also says that there are three parts: a long-term change, it lasts for a long time; learning involves mental representations or associations, its basis is in the brain; and third, learning is a change as a result of experience.

Learning has been described by Howe (1980) as ‘cumulative’ i.e. whatever we learn at any time is influenced by previous learning. It is also clear that developmental processes and learning processes are closely interlinked. Whilst psychologists agree that learning is affected by past experience and is relatively permanent there are differing theories about exactly what changes when learning takes place and what mechanisms are involved. An important issue is whether the focus is on overt behavioural changes (that which can be seen) or covert, cognitive changes (the unseen change in thoughts). The concept of learning is broad and there are different psychological theories as to what is involved in that learning process.

This article goes into depth about encoding and retriaval experiments testing recognition without awareness, and implicit and explicit memory through images. The scientists conducting the experiment were looking for a correlation between images and recognition without awareness. The scientists leading the experiment divided 45 undergradute students into two groups; they had 24 students in the full attention encoding group and 21 students in the divided attention encoding group. They then tested these students' recognition without awareness with