Summary of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

They are all polymers made during dehydration synthesis reactions from monomers. These reactions result in the loss of water forming strong covalent bonds. They are referred to as endergonic reactions since they require an input of energy. Hydrolytic reactions are the opposite as they break polymers into single unit monomers using water and in the process releasing energy thus referred to as exergonic reactions (Gorrod, 1985). The monomer form of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide e.g. glucose (used for energy in cells), fructose and ribose. When two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration synthesis reaction they form a disaccharide e.g. sucrose, which is a combination of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is used for transport in plants. Polysaccharides consist of three or more covalently bonded monosaccharides. Starch and glycogen are good examples and are both used in energy storage in plants and animals respectively. Monomers of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol while amino acids are monomers of proteins. Amino acids mainly function to regulate different cell functions as well as catalyze various cell reactions. Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids and they function in storing the genetic information of a cell (DNA) and synthesis of proteins (RNA). All these monomers undergo dehydration synthesis reactions to form their corresponding polymers and are used in

1. List whether each of the following substances was positive or negative for reducing sugar, as indicated by the Benedict's test. (6 points)

When the two smaller reactants join together, water is produced and removed during the synthesis of the larger molecule. This is also called Dehydration Synthesis.

glycogen 11. glycogen 12. urea 13. triglyceride 14. peptide bonds 15.

Cellular respiration is the series of metabolic process by which living cells produce energy through the oxidation of organic substances. Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Fermentation is the process by which complex organic compounds such as glucose, are broken down by the action of enzymes into simpler compounds without the use of oxygen. The significance of these pathways for organisms is to allow for an organism to be able to generate ATP. Some organism that undergo cellular respiration are bacteria and fungi. Some organism that undergo fermentation are yeast and muscle cells. In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized and releases energy. In cellular respiration, glucose produces ATP and 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. The pyruvate is then further broken down in the mitochondria where it becomes oxidized and releases CO2 (Upadhyaya 2014). In the fermentation process oxygen does not play a part. This process converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. From there pyruvate breaks down into CO2 and acetaldehyde (Upadhyaya 2014) Monosaccharides are known as simple sugars and their main function is being the source of energy for organisms. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond and their primary function is to provide food to monosaccharides. Some disaccharides

N- saccharin is more stable than O-saccharin, so it should be the major product of the reaction, if not the only product, if the reaction reaches thermal equilibrium. A reaction involving the oxygen as the nucleophile should occur faster than one involving nitrogen because the oxygen is more electronegative. This electronegativity would attract the attack of the nucleophile more so than the Nitrogen atom would.

2.List whether each of the following substances was positive or negative for reducing sugar, as indicated by the Benedict's test. (6 points)

5. Surcase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the disaccharide sucrose into its two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose.

A polysaccharide is when a numerous amounts of monosaccharides are joined together forming a molecule. Both glycogen and starch are polysaccharides. Glycogen is a energy storage carbohydrate found in animals. Glycogen in comparison to starch is much more highly branched. Starch is a polysaccharide that functions as a energy carbohydrate store in plants. This can be found mostly in potatoes and cereals. It is formed by the bonding together of many of glucose subunits into long chains. The actions of hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of a compound due to the reaction of water. In order for hydrolysis to occur water must be added to the compound

The hypothesis stats that as the sucrose concentration is increased, rate of respiration will increase and therefore the CO2 production of yeast cells will rise. Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of the monosaccharaides glucose and fructose. Glucose is a reactant in anaerobic cell respiration. In the absence of oxygen, glucose will react with the yeast producing ethanol and CO2.

Then, a phosphate is added to one of the the three carbon molecules, in addition to the reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH via triosephosphate dehydrogenase. In the first ATP generating step, a phosphate is transferred form the product of the last reaction to ADP via phosphoglycerate kinase. The next step switches the position of a phosphate group to yield 2-phosphoglycerate. Enolase then catalyzes a dehydration reaction to yield phophoenolpyruvate. The last energy producing step of glycolysis transfers a phosphate group to ADP and in the process, forms

Whereas the large molecule food (Sucrose) will take longer to break down because of its large molecules, this will waste the energy of the yeast as it has to break down the large molecules into smaller molecules before it can use them. This means that the sucrose is not as efficient as the glucose at providing the yeast with a better medium by which it will produce a faster rate of respiration. Theory:

The first part of the breakdown of glucose is known as Glycolysis, in which one molecule of glucose is broken down to two molecules of pyruvate (C3H4O3). The second part is the fermentation process in which the two pyruvate molecules are converted to two molecules of ethanol and two molecules of carbon dioxide.

Carbohydrates are the product that made up from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are form by the combination of carbon dioxide and water molecules. The carbohydrates contain two specific functional group in it which is the hydroxyl groups and carbonyl groups.A reducing sugar is a type of sugar with is an aldehyde group.This means that sugar can act as a reducing agent.The procces of reducing sugar is isomerisation,example of reducing sugar islactose,maltose,glucose and fructose.All monosaccharides are capable of reducing other chemicals such as copper (II) sulphate to copper oxide.Beside that disaccharides such as maltose and lactose are reducing sugar,however sucrose is non reducing

The term ‘’Carbohydrates’’ is defined as the carbon compounds which contains hydroxyl groups in large quantities (King, 2013). Carbohydrates are those organic compounds which have the empirical formula CnH2nOn, or (CH2O)n (Fromm 1997). Carbohydrates are one of the four types of organic compounds in living cells that are produces during photosynthesis and are the important source of energy in both plants and animals (Ahmed 2014). They are built from monosaccharides. These monosacchradies are the small molecules that consists of three to nine carbon atoms and differ in size and in the stereochemical configuration at one or more carbon centers. The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde or ketone compounds (freeman 2002). Carbohydrates are classified as simple and complex carbohydrates. The classification of carbohtdydrates is based on the chemical structure of the food and how fast it absorbs. Simple carbohydrates contains single or double sugars in their chemical structure whereas complex carbohydrates consists of three or more sugars (ahmed 2014). There are four major types of carbohydrates depending on their chemical composition.