Tachylectin-5A

Ed’s blood contains white blood cells, which combat infection and inflammation. Foreign invaders attract phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages by means of chemotaxis. These particular cells eat and dispose of pathogens in a process called phagocytosis.

Despite the wide-range of microbes affected by the innate immune system, the activity of peptides associated with the immune response seem to be highly sequence specific. The peptides specifically target areas of the membrane with high curvature. (Mark, 601)

In order to study the molecules regulator in hematopoiesis by an in vitro culture, crayfish hematopoietic cytokines, astakine1 have been identified (5). Astakine1 is an invertebrate prokineticin, which plays an important role in hematopoiesis regulation in crustacean.

The active site of the protein is located at the cleft between the subdomains. It is characterized as a mix of type 1 and type 2 RIPs. Around the N-terminus, there are 6 β-sheets, 4 antiparallel strands and 2 parallel strands. The C-terminus has 8 α-helices where the 310-helix crosses over on the parallel β-strand giving a canonical geometry. Unlike RIPs, Saporin-S6 has 2 β-strands (7 & 8) that are shorter that increases the accessibility to a particular substrate. This plays a role with its resistance to denaturing agents, the ability to survive in extreme pH, the modifications that are necessary to create immunotoxin and the stability in extreme temperatures.

The complement system is a part of the immune system that is established in the blood and functions to keep the body healthy. The complement system consists of more than thirty proteins that flow throughout the blood and attack bacteria, viruses, and any foreign invader found throughout the body. More specifically, the complement system helps pathogen cells commit apoptosis, have inflammation, lyse, and opsonization. There are nine major complement proteins, which are C1-C9, that act a little different in each of the three pathways: the alternative, classical, and the lectin complement pathway. The difference between the lectin and the classical pathway is that in the lectin pathway, C1q is not involved but instead a mannan binding protein

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Lastly, they also stimulate apoptotic genes in order to cause cell death. Memory T cells are able to clone themselves and remain in circulation to prevent reinfection. So, if pathogens such as L. pneumophila reappear, cytotoxic T cells will immediately be reactivated to fight off infection. Helper T cells stimulate T and B cells, and suppressor T cells inhibit the function of both T and B cells. T cells have receptors on their surface, also known as TCRs. They are capable of recognizing antigens bound to glycoproteins in plasma membranes. There are two classes of MHC proteins. Class I is found in the membranes of all nucleated cells. Class II can be found in the membranes of antigen-presenting cells. T-cell glycoproteins allow the epitope to bind to the TCR. CD8 are associated with cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and CD4 are associated with helper T lymphocytes. CD8 recognizes MHC I proteins, and CD4 identify MHC II proteins. MHC I proteins gather small peptides in cells and bring them to the surface. Abnormal proteins or peptides activate T cells, which destroy the cell. MHC II proteins recognize antigenic fragments, activating T cells to fight off foreign cells and

Tachylectin-5A is an ellipsoidal molecule that is an asymmetrical monomer, which is subdivided into three different domains that interact with each other (2). The primary structure of Tachylectin-5A constitutes 269 amino acid residues (1). The amino acid composition of this protein has a cis-peptide bone between Arg-218 and Cys-219 (3). It contains one protein modification called prryolidone carboxylic acid, which is the twenty-fourth amino acid in the sequence (1). And the secondary structure of the protein consists of 16% alpha helical and 24% beta sheets. There are 9 helices with 44 amino acid residues and 19 beta sheets with 66 residues involved in total (1). The

Fish undergoing internal or external challenges to their state of health mount a vigorous response including activation of both the innate and acquired immune system [1]. The innate immune system which covers those aspects of the host defense mechanisms not dependent on specific response, not only stimulate leukocyte activity but also affects many aspects of the host metabolic processes including immunological response to inflammatory stimuli by activation of phagocytes, and by altered levels of plasma proteins (AAPs). These changes in the plasma proteins have drawn attention to the importance of the innate immune response in fish. Acute phase proteins (APPs) are a large group of biochemically and functionally unrelated proteins whose plasma

In fish mucosal immune system is mainly associated with gut, skin and the gill; these are the main mucosal surfaces and immune barriers. Mucosal immune system is a major part that responds and protects against pathogens that enter the body via mucosal surfaces. An inductive site for mucosal immunity possesses organized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) and local and regional draining lymph nodes (LN), while the effector sites have distinctly different histological compartments. In fish hindgut seems to play vital role in antigen uptake (Rombout et al., 1993). Absorption of macromolecules by intestinal epithelial cells and many diffusely distributed leucocytes as well as intraperitoneal lymphocytes (IELs) are described in numerous fish

Analysis of data showed that there was a higher percentage of macrophages than B cells present within the MHC positive population. The remaining population of cells (3%) can be attributed to dendritic cells, which have been previously shown to form a small percentage (3%of cells) within zebrafish gut by Wittamer et al, 2011. While we used visual morphological differences to distinguish between B cells and macrophages, future experiments can make use of the mhc2dab:GFP; cd45:DsRed double-transgenic (Wittamer et al,2011) which would enable us to distinguish between macrophages (mhc+; cd45+) and B cells (mhc+) through fluorescent markers thereby allowing us to FACS sort pure populations if needed as well. We saw that within the mhc+ cells in the wild-type zebrafish gut, phagocytosis by macrophages within gut phagocytes was higher than B cells.This high proportion of phagocytosis by macrophages within leukocyte populations is consistent with Page et al’s, 2013, in-vivo study in which more than half of the phagocytic cells in murine peritoneal cavity were macrophages. We further quantified phagocytic efficiency of each cell type within their respective populations. 54.5% of macrophages within the macrophage population were phagocytic and 33.8% of B cells within the B cell population were phagocytic. Interestingly, previous research by Li et al, indicated that teleost fish can show up to 60% of phagocytic behaviour by B cells. However, in contrast, a study by Page et al, showed only a 2% phagocytic efficiency of zebrafish B cells. While the researchers acknowledge that there is a possibility that intrinsic experimental conditions could have contributed to this result, it should also be noted that the in-vitro experiment used B cells from the kidney to test for phagocytic efficiency. B cells from the gut may have

Androgens act on sebaceous glands by increasing the proliferation of sebocytes and increasing lipid production through sterol response element binding proteins (SREBP’s). 5-alphareductase type 1 is one of the most important enzymes that found in sebocytes and keratinocytes of the infundibulum , this enzyme responsible for transform testosterone into DHT, its activity greater in the follicular infra infundibulum than in the epidermis and acts 5–10 times more effective than its precursor testosterone. 5-alphareductase type 1 binding to its receptor protein then DHT is translocated to the nucleus and initiates the transcription of androgen-responsive genes after that 5 DHT increases the mRNA of proteins involved in fatty acid, triglyceride and

Bettelheim, Brown, Campbell and Farrell assert that polypeptide chains do not extend in straight lines but rather they fold in various ways and give rise to a large number of three-dimensional structures (594). This folding or conformation of amino acids in the localized regions of the polypeptide chains defines the secondary structure of proteins. The main force responsible for the secondary structure is the non-covalent

Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for the thousands of chemical interconversions that sustain life. They are highly selective catalysts, greatly accelerating both the rate and specificity of metabolic reactions, from the digestion of food to the synthesis of DNA. Most enzymes are proteins, although some catalytic RNA molecules have been identified. Enzymes adopt a specific three-dimensional structure, and may employ organic (e.g. biotin) and inorganic (e.g. magnesium ion) cofactors to assist in catalysis.

It has a structure of flattened membranous sacs. The proteins made at ribosomes are modified and packaged into vesicles. It modifies proteins. It then takes the molecules and