Test B1 Test D2

The Stroop (1935) effect is the inability to ignore a color word when the task is to report the ink color of that word (i.e., to say "green" to the word RED in green ink). The present study investigated whether object-based processing contributes to the Stroop effect. According to this view, observers are unable to ignore irrelevant features of an attended object (Kahneman & Henik, 1981). In three experiments, participants had to name the color of one of two superimposed rectangles and to ignore words that appeared in the relevant object, in the irrelevant object, or in the background. The words were congruent,

The results of Roediger and McDermott’s experiment were very significant. The participants recalled the critical distractor words 40% of the time compared to 14% recall of the normal distractor words. When they

The hypothesis is that when trying to remember the word pair list with whatever memory methods used, the beginning and ending word pairs will be remembered most often. The subjects that were chosen came from Indian temple friends and classmates in chemistry class. The target population was eight subjects in three groups, which was a total of twenty-four subjects. There were eight subjects in the control group and eight other subjects each in the two experimental groups. They were divided into control and experimental groups randomly being a mix of temple friends and classmates. A independent variable is manipulated or changed. The independent variable was the word pair list needed to be memorized. The dependent variable is what is being measured in an experiment, which was the results of the word pair test. It was a single blind experiment, which is when only the participant does not know whether they are part of the treatment or control group.

The results show that there is a difference in the words being recalled in the imagery method and in the words being recalled in the rote rehearsal method. The data showed that there was a greater amount of words recalled by imagery than there was in rote rehearsal. Rote rehearsal had a mean value of 8.28, which wasn’t that close to imagery. Imagery had a mean value of 12.96. The median and mode for rote rehearsal had a value of 8, and both the median and mode for imagery had a value of 13. It wasn’t until the standard deviation that rote rehearsal increased higher than imagery. Rote rehearsal had a standard deviation of 5.11, while imagery had a standard deviation of 4.67.

A recognition test was used by researchers interested in the matter, Roediger and McDermott (1995). The purpose of their research was to examine false recognition of non presented words and the confidence with which the participants accept or reject the non presented words as having been in the study lists. The participants were instructed that they will hear lists of words, and their task after hearing each list is to write the last few items first and to recall the rest of the words in order. Also, they are told to write all the words they can remember, but without

Using paired wordlists of nouns, Bower and Gordon demonstrated this in their 1970 experiment. In their study, they had undergraduate students learn paired wordlists by one of four methods – rehearsal of the two words; reading a sentence in which one of the words acted upon the other (i.e. “The boy hit the ball.”); creating a sentence which linked the two words (i.e. “Nancy threw her bag on the table.”) or creating a mental image of the two words together (i.e. imagining a basket of flowers) (Bower & Gordon, 1970). Results found that students who employed imagery did better on recalling the word pairs in comparison to other methods and those who utilized rehearsal had the lowest recall rate out of the four groups (Bower & Gordon, 1970).

In the Stroop task, participants are asked to name the colour of the ink that a colour word is written in, while ignoring the written the word (Goldfarb et al., 2011; Raz et al., 2006). The task is comprised of congruent words, where the ink colour and the written word match and incongruent words, where the ink colour and the written word do not match. The Stroop task has illustrated that participants respond slower and less accurately when the word is incongruent compared to when it is congruent (Goldfarb et al., 2011; Raz et al., 2006). The difference in the accuracy and speed of responses between the congruent and incongruent words is called the Stroop Effect (Goldfarb et al., 2011; Raz et al., 2006). Research has suggested that this occurs

presented DRM lists as coloured words in a Stroop test. Naming colours reduced accurate memory for list words as compared to reading coloured words, but false memory remained high for critical words. Furthermore, the elimination of false memory is difficult in that certain “encoding manipulations may lead to reductions in false memories through metamemorial processes occurring at retrieval” (Gallo, McDermott, Percer & Roediger III, 2001, p.339). For example slowing presentation rate decreases the probability of false

The primary outcome in the current study was measuring the ability to correctly recall different character sets that included similar or dissimilar distractor tasks. To test this hypothesis, the number of correctly recalled character sets were analyzed by a 2 (character set: consonants vs. digits) X 2 (distractor task: word-based vs. number-based) between-subjects ANOVA. The main effect for character sets was not statistically significant, F(1, 106) = 1.16, p = .284, ηp² = .01. The main effect for distractor tasks also produced non-statistically significant results, F(1, 106) = 1.0, p = .758, ηp² = .001 . Lastly the interaction effect showed a non-statistically significant result F(1, 106) = 1.22, p = .271, ηp² = .011. Descriptive statistics for these data can be found in Table 1.

The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that people can forget what they have just previously remembered. People are more likely to recall a stimulus correctly if the context is the same as previously presented; people are more likely to forget if the context is different. Participants were St. Francis Xavier University undergraduate students in Cognitive Psychology. There were three different phases of the experiment; Phase I: a series of 44 word-pairs was presented. Participants read the words silently; Phase II (cued-recall): a cue-recall test was imposed. Participants were to recall a word that matched the cue presented; Phase III (memory judgment): a cue and parget-pair were displayed. Participants were to remember whether they had recalled the target previously in Phase II. It was found that there is a statistically highly significant difference between conditions “same” and “different”, F(1,46) = 139.7, p < .001, indicating that our memories are often contingent upon context.

It involves the oral presentation of a list of semantically related words and then requires the subject to remember as many words from the list as possible. Typically, results show that subjects recall related but non-presented “lure” words as frequently as other presented words. This paradigm has sparked much research in the area of cognitive psychology including a study performed by Blair, Lenton, and Hastie, aiming to examine the reliability of the paradigm as a measure of individual differences. They examined this through a 2-week test-retest design. The primary focus of this study was to determine whether the overall levels of correct and false recognition demonstrate similar or different levels of reliability. The subject pool for this study consisted of 59 University of Colorado students, who participated in the study in partial fulfillment of a course requirement. They were presented with five word lists, four of which were taking from the DRM (1995) and the last one consisted of stereotypical social roles associated with males and females. After studying the lists, the subjects were asked to complete a recognition test that consisted of words from all of the lists and both related and unrelated lures of the list words. Approximately 2 weeks later, the participants completed the same study-test sequence. The social role list was added to investigate the influence of social associations on false memories. This was included in the investigation because nearly all of the research with the DRM paradigm studied strictly nonsocial associations. After analysis, the study concluded that the false memories produced in the paradigm were both globally and specifically stable across the 2-week period. It was suggested that these results could have been influenced by the study’s methodology. The same lists and tests were used in both study-test sessions, therefore,

In everyday conversation, there are words that people use quite frequently and words that are used infrequently, which has been described as Word Frequency (WF). For example, the word cow has a higher frequency, because it utilized more often in everyday conversation, novels, magazine, newspaper, and academia than the word tungsten, which is less used (Davies, 2012). Andrews (1989) argued that based on this concept of WF, NS has an effect only with words that have a low WF. Explained further, the more neighbors that a low frequency word has, the longer it takes for one to attain mental activation for word recognition (Andrews, 1992). Furthermore it is argued that WF has more to do with word recognition than NS effect, because it is shown that

Prior to the early 1970s the prominent idea of how memories were formed and retrieved revolved around the idea of processing memory into specific stores (Francis & Neath, 2014). These memory stores were identified as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. In contrast to this idea, two researchers named Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart proposed an idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval (Goldstein, 2015). This idea is known as the levels of processing theory. According to this theory, memory depends on the depth of processing that a given item is received by an individual (Goldstein, 2015). Craik and Lockhart stressed four points in supporting their theory. First, they argued that memory was the result of a series of analyses, each level of the series forming a deeper level of processing than the preceding level (Francis & Neath, 2014). The shallow levels of processing were believed to hold less importance and are defined as giving little attention to meaning of an item. Examples of which include focusing on how a word sounds or memorizing a phone number by repeating it over and over again (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The deeper levels processing involve paying close attention to the meaning of an item and relating that meaning to something else, an example of which would be focusing on the meaning of a word rather than just how the word sounds (Francis & Neath, 2014) (Goldstein, 2015). The second point Craik and Lockhart

General Topic and Hypothesis Verbal short-term memory (STM) is better maintained when a person has knowledge of the sounds and meanings of words presented. This semantic knowledge is demonstrated by the impact of semantic manipulations (e.g. word perceptibility) and by neuropsychological studies of word recall deficits. This can be explained either by redintegration or language based accounts. Redintegration is the long-term knowledge of lexical forms of words that facilitate item reconstruction. Language based accounts suggest that STM is supported by temporary activation of long-term linguistic representations prior to recall. The present study examines phoneme-level errors to assess the predictions of the semantic binding hypothesis, which

In order to have a healthy nervous system Vitamin B12 must be included in adequate amounts in the diet (Abyad, 2016). It is, according to Abyad (2016), needed for DNA synthesis and to regenerate damaged nerves. Vitamins B12 and B6 are both crucial for nerve function (Stubblefield et al., 2009). Further, it is known that a vitamin B12 deficiency is a contributory factor in peripheral neuropathy, and that this may, in fact, cause a predisposition to CIPN (Schloss et al., 2015; Solomon, 2016). There are numerous studies, including retrospective, phase II, and double-blind studies on the use of vitamin B12 for the treatment of CIPN (Stubblefield et al., 2009; Schloss, Colosimo & Vitetta, 2016; Schloss et al., 2015).